The paper aims to analyze the development of technique in Karl Marx. To achieve this, it undertakes a theoretical and bibliographic review of the capitalist mode of production in Marx through the texts Manuscripts of 1961-1963, Grundrisse, and Capital I. In each of the historical stages, the text examines the technical developments of capital and what led the capitalist mode of production to revolutionize each of them, emphasizing Marxian concepts such as surplus value and subsumption. Subsequently, the text specifically discusses the meanings of technique in Marx, reviewing the inferences throughout the analysis of the capitalist mode of production and discussing the meanings attributed by criticism. Thus, the text proposes a material sense of technique in Marx, as means of production, and an abstract sense, as means to ends, which is constructed as an immanent impulse throughout the history of the capitalist mode of production.

The present investigation aims to analyze the responses of the Theory of Dissipative Structures (TDS), by Ilya Prigogine, to three perplexities identified by Henri Bergson in the face of three natural phenomena. The significance of this investigation lies in Prigogine's claim to have introduced philosophical time into physics, with Bergsonian time as its paradigm. The mentioned phenomena we will analyze are essentially temporal in nature, according to Bergson, and our ultimate goal is to develop a method for evaluating the thesis of the introduction of philosophical time into physics by TDS through a potential solution or lack thereof to these perplexities. For the first of these perplexities, Prigogine provides a categorical and definitive response. Our intention is to ascertain whether the TDS model can provide concepts in terms of which a coherent proposal for solving the other Bergsonian perplexities can be outlined.

Defined as the joy of perceiving one's own superiority, the passion of Glory is commonly regarded as a crucial element in the effort to understand human psychology as conceived by Thomas Hobbes. According to the author, it is precisely under its influence that individuals are depicted as insatiable and proud machines, driven solely by the desire to acquire power and reputation, as well as to dominate others. In this context, the present dissertation aims to provide an exegetical analysis of Glory within the Hobbesian system, exploring its definition, evolution, and manifestation within the human mind. To this end, the major works of the author are examined, from his early relevant writings to the fundamental transformation that occurs with the publication of Leviathan and De Homine. By highlighting the political and social centrality of this passion, the study seeks to understand its application to human groups within the historical-anthropological state of nature, investigating its effects across different contexts. This research aims to contribute to the understanding of Hobbes's thought by clarifying both the relevance of Glory within his system and, by extension, the importance of self-esteem and the desire for reputation in the sociopolitical sphere.

This dissertation presents Arthur Schopenhauer's perspective on boredom, aiming to argue for the presence of a metaphysical meaning of boredom in human existence, grounded in Schopenhauer's metaphysics of the will, which is, existence is essentially an insatiable will, devoid of intrinsic value. The investigation begins with a chapter introducing the epistemology of “representation” and the metaphysics of “will” that form the basis of the “single thought” through which the philosopher explains boredom. In this first stage, we address the “endless striving” that constitutes human essence and the “insatiable” nature of its willing. In the second chapter, we present a concept of boredom based on the notion of “sensation” and the “law of motivation,” followed by a discussion aimed at comprehend the “pain of boredom” to which the philosopher refers in passages describing the affective state of the bored individual. One of the problems to be resolved is the incompatibility between the emptiness of motives that arouses boredom and the volitional essence of the human being, whose existence consists of the effective affirmation of its insatiable will, motivated by objects supplied by its intellect. How can we reconcile a will that cannot help but will, whose entire being and existence is mere manifestation of this willing, with an actual experience of a lack of determined willing? This question is answered by interpreting boredom as a “will to will”; that is, in boredom, the will persists in “wanting to want,” its volitive nature remaining intact. Finally, in the third chapter, the dissertation explains how boredom is an experience that attests, firstly the metaphysical reality of an insatiable will whose essence is only striving, and secondly how boredom reveals the emptiness of value of human existence. Lastly, it demonstrates how this metaphysical meaning leads to Schopenhauer's pessimism.

The reasoning later known as the Ontological Argument, conceived by the medieval philosopher Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033-1109), has been discussed and reformulated numerous times throughout the history of philosophy. Aiming to establish a connection between a reasoning of historical significance to philosophy and the roots of contemporary analytical tradition, as well as to advocate for the importance of historiographical studies in better understanding the origin and development of ideas within analytic philosophy, this work investigates the influences of the historically renowned Ontological Argument on the works of the British philosopher and one of the leading figures in the analytical tradition, Bertrand Russell (1872-1970). The analysis is based on a reading and interpretation of philosophical works on the subject, divided into three main stages. First, through a general historiographical overview of the discussion tradition surrounding the argument, a historical panorama of its theological and rhetorical interpretations is outlined. Second, Russell’s perspective on the development of this reasoning is exposed through his historiographical works—such as Wisdom of the West (1959) and A History of Western Philosophy (1945)—allowing for an assessment of the argument’s role as one of the traditional issues to be elucidated by Russell’s new approach to philosophy through logical and linguistic analysis of propositions. Finally, the work focuses more specifically on Russell’s perspective of the Ontological Argument through his Theory of Definite Descriptions, presented in On Denoting (1905). The aim is to highlight the historical importance of the argument within this seminal theory for analytic philosophy, situating the Ontological Argument as an example of traditionally problematic philosophical reasoning that can be elucidated through a new logical methodology for analyzing propositions.

Our thesis entitled, Rousseau and the origin of man's corruption: critique of social evils and defense of human dignity, aims to investigate the way in which the passage from a condition of innocence, proper to the state of nature, to the condition of corruption, proper to the state of society, took place, starting from the moral and political philosophy of the Geneva philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), taking as its main source the 1755 work Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes (Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality between men). To do this, we focus on understanding the nature of man and investigating the foundations of society. Our main question is: according to Rousseau, how did human corruption come about and how did it contribute to the emergence, implementation and spread of social evils in the world? According to Rousseau, the main social evil is moral or political inequality, as a result of which others arise, such as slavery, murder, war, etc. Before that, we should consider that feelings of envy, greed, vanity, etc., arose with the advent of sociability. Our aim, therefore, is to learn about the steps of human corruption, in the process of moving from the state of nature to the civil state, when love of self is replaced by love of self and natural independence is exchanged for social dependence, or slavery. Some philosophical questions form part of the main thrust of our thesis: was there a mutation in human nature that caused man to let go of the independence of the state of nature and begin to live in bondage to its shackles? How did a good nature become an evil nature? What contribution did the transition from the state of nature to the civil state and the birth of private property make to the progress and spread of various types of social evil? What is our philosopher's critique of the various injustices that exist in the reality of society? These questions, among others, will permeate the structure of our study. Our thesis is structured in four chapters. In the first, The Rousseaunian Natural Man, we aim to find out if there is evil in the state of nature, and to do this we take a close look at the conditions of human nature and its behavior. The main thrust of the study, in this first part, considers the physical, psychological and moral characteristics of the natural man. Above all, we want to know whether self-love, piety, perfectibility and language contributed to the evolution of human thought and behavior, putting an end to natural amoralism and contributing to the emergence of social evils. In the second chapter, the harbinger of human corruption, our object of investigation is the emergence of sociability and its consequences, as a contribution to the birth of the first social evils, i.e. the replacement of love of self by love of self. The study focuses on the transition from the isolation of the state of nature to the construction of the first social contacts and the first forms of social coexistence. Here, we want to know whether the advent of sociability contributed to the process of human corruption. In the third chapter, the consolidation of social evils, we consider how social evils came about with the transition from the state of nature to the civil state, with the emergence of private property. We also highlight the main levels of social evil consolidated by inequality since the advent of property, inequality between rich and poor, powerful and weak, master and slave. We explain that the justification of inequality or social evils came about through laws and politics with a first social pact, the negative social pact. In the last section of this chapter, we show how man has lost his transparency, which is characteristic of the state of nature, and has come to live overshadowed by the veil of corruption, oscillating in the antithesis between being and seeming. In the last chapter, we wanted to show our philosopher's defense of social and political freedom through a strong critique of any kind of slavery, whether practiced by a particular individual or by different governments. Finally, we aim to make a connection between the ideas discussed in the previous sections on the origin of human corruption and some of Rousseau's theses that awaken in us the possibility of thinking about the transition from the reality of slavery to civil or political freedom, through the proposal of the positive social pact in The Social Contract. Our thesis highlights not only the narrative of the genesis of human corruption, but also the criticism of social evils and the philosopher's unconditional defense of social equality, political freedom and human dignity.    

As the Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben highlights at the threshold of his investigations, there is no so-called democratic “State” that is not strongly committed to the massive fabrication of human misery and the end of social . Taking this finding into consideration, the general goal of our research is to analyze the syntagma “state of exception” as a paradigm for contemporary politics according to Giorgio Agamben. To this end, it is necessary to understand the state of exception as a presupposition of the political and legal structure of modern power and recognize the legal phenomenon of exception in the fundamental correlation of coexistence between rights and power. To this end, a critical digression will be performed, showing the path proposed by Agamben regarding one of the founding narratives of the modern State, namely: the “mythologeme of the social contract” in the face of the objectification and legitimacy of modern power through the bias of sovereignty and the its paradox (inside/outside a sovereign power hidden in the power structure of modernity). With this, we are faced with the proposed problem of this analysis, which is to highlight the “rights form” of the legal phenomenon of modernity based on the assumption of the state of exception as “a void of law”. In this way, what constitutes our analytical problem is presented: highlighting the correlation between law and politics at the moment of the facticity of the sovereign decision, a correlation that unduly reduces the applicability of the “rights form”, making it a void of law in relation to the condition of existence of human life in the state of exception, subjected to contemporary relations of power. This statement leads to a serious question: how does the establishment of a zone of anomie and the void of the “rights form”, in the relationship between sovereignty and the state of exception, justify contemporary authoritarianism? This is the motivation behind this research. In this sense, we will seek to answer this question through the philosophical, historical and epistemological perspective of the archaeological method from a paradigmatic ontology of modern power as proposed by Giorgio Agamben. Under this analysis, it is maintained, together with the philosopher, that we survive in a “permanent state of exception” in the face of the contingencies of the existence condition of human life in correlation with politics and rights in contemporary times. Given the political and legal analysis of the syntagma “state of exception” in contemporary times (as a structure of political power and politics in law), we seek to formulate the thesis that the phenomenon of the Contemporary State form, presented itself as a “dual State”, that is, a State now of law, now of exception, that articulates and conditions human life in the process of a political action of exclusion and inclusion in contemporary times, between the interfaces of a sovereign political and legal decision, a form of State implicit in the thought of Giorgio Agamben.

This thesis addresses three fundamental aspects of Achille Mbembe's work: the question of race in the Critique of Black Reason, the critique of colonialism and its metamorphoses in the rise of the concepts of enmity and necropolitics in contemporary times. To achieve this objective, the thesis is structured into three chapters. The first chapter examines the formation of the idea of race by analyzing white discourse and colonial invasion. It revisits the critique of the concept of blackness and race, which emerged from the racial designations imposed by white Europeans, culminating in the notion of black reason. The second chapter delves into colonial-racial relations, exploring Mbembe's critique of colonialism alongside other Pan-Africanist authors. It analyzes their critique of racial colonial domination, centered on Europe's power as the hub of modernity, and examines how philosophical modernity has contributed to the dehumanization of black individuals and Africa. The third chapter investigates the contemporary metamorphosis of racial-colonial relations, focusing on their adaptation and reconfiguration in modern times. It elucidates how social relations have evolved into politics of enmity, marked by the identification of internal and external adversaries. Furthermore, it explores how these processes have led to a biopolitical logic of segregating people and territories, resulting in the exclusion and elimination of individuals and social groups. This contemporary form of politics embodies a necropolitical framework, delineating who should live and who should die and transforming political relations into necropolitics.

The discussion on the limits of the suspension of judgment (ἐποχή) is one of the core questions concerning the Pyrrhonism, whose most hard charge alleges the impossibility of acting (ἀπραξία) in state of suspension of judgment. The controversy concerns on the inclusion of the ordinary beliefs in scope of the ἐποχή, contrasting the “urbane” and “rustic” views. Although the two of them conceptions present reasonable arguments, they give chance to serious practical problems, with implications on viability of living according to the Pyrrhonic way of life (ἀγωγή). In order to overcome the problems to arise from the meanings of these views as for the limits of ἐποχή, is advocated a thesis that reconsiders the role of the commemorative sign within the sphere of the Pyrrhonian ἀγωγή, through which it is possible to establish coherence between live life and suspend judgement. From this perspective, was observed the charge of ἀπραξία within the scope of debate between urbane and rustic and, owing to impasse between the two of them in relation to ἐποχή, those challenge stay. As an alternative, was analyzed the commemorative sign and its conformity with the phenomenon and the everyday life. Given its relationships with the two of them, was verified its feasibility to play the role of λόγος in the Pyrrhonic ἀγωγή. This result showed that this new view is a promising reply against the charge of ἀπραξία, offering a key to a compatible read between Pyrrhonian’s ἐποχή and ἀγωγή.

The philosopher Nietzsche, for having realized human decadence, has recommended the overcoming of man, promulgating, through the mouth of Zarathustra, the superman [Ubermensch]. This idea of overcoming man is not an exclusive claim of Nietzsche's philosophy, transhumanism, for example, envisages the possibility of the human species transcending itself through technological enhacement, seeking at the post-human, which was associated to
the Ubermensch by Sorgner. However, what Nietzsche imagined was not an overcoming of man in a technological point of view, but a moral one. We will, hence, draw a line of reasoning so that we can understand why the philosopher has recommended, or even stated, that man ought be overcome, so that through this comprehesion there is a notion of what the Ubermensch would mean. Then, we will draw another line so that we can understand the reason why transhumanism envisions the possibility of overcoming man, so that we can understand what would be the posthuman. With nothing more to be said, we will argue the Nietzschean idea of overcoming man and that of transhumanism, in order to defend the thesis that the Ubermensch and the posthuman are antithetical ideas.

This dissertation aim to explain what means the State from the works of Marx and Engels. According to these authors, the institution has undergone several transformations since its creation, however, what all forms of State have in common is the aspect of instrument of opression of the ruling class. Just like the social classes, the State did not aways exist or exist forever, it is an institution thats corresponds to a certain degree of development of social producion capacity. The conflict between the productive forces and the way in which society organizes itself to produce and reproduce the means of life is reflected in class struggles and the creation and extinction of social institutions. In order to understand what the state means for the creators of scientific socialism, our research investigates the emergence of the institution, the relationship between state and ideology and the transition to the dictatorship of the proletariat and the end of the state from the assumptions of dialectical materialism.

The objective of this work is to present the notion of happy life in Seneca the Younger. To achieve this objective will be considered the reflections of Seneca encountered in the follow books: The Happy Life (De Vita Beata), Moral Epistles (Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium). One of the important elements of this discussion is the idea that happiness is encountered in each individual and not in the things, material goods and in the other people. Another important premise is self-confidence as the foundation of happiness, as Seneca maintains. The acknowledgement of what are vices and virtues completes the argumentation and will be central in this line. The idea that the human must act conforms to your self nature also is fundamental for comprehending what Seneca considers as happiness. In secondary form, it will be analyzed the atemporality of the concept of happiness, as defined by the philosopher. Atemporality is understood as something that never loses its validity. The actuality materializes from the moment that the revelation of Seneca's ideas about happiness becomes emergent. When one proposes a atemporality of Seneca's ideas, one does not mean that these ideas are in full use at our time, however, a question is proposed: is there a demand today for this way of experiencing happiness?

Can we identify points of convergence between the oppressions of class, race and gender? Based on the intersectional studies of Brazilian philosopher Lélia Gonzalez, we seek to analyse triple oppression, a reinterpretation of the concept of triple discrimination proposed by the thinker. Our aim is to analyse the connections between these three oppressions, while at the same time uncovering the essence of this complex phenomenon. In our view, the concept points to a strategy that prevents us from overcoming the structures of the capitalist system: the naturalisation of oppressions through the establishment of an abstract universal rationalism. We base our investigation on his work Springtime for the Black Roses, a compilation of articles covering writings from the 1970s to the 1990s. Using an analytical approach, we seek not only to explain and interpret the author's theses, but also to establish dialogues with other feminist, Marxian and decolonial thinkers, opting for a tripartite structure of chapters to capture the intertwining of class (chapter 1), race (chapter 2) and gender (chapter 3). To do this, we first discuss the process of marginalisation of black bodies, as one of the most exploited commodities for primitive accumulation in territories with unequal and combined development; then we show how the myth of racial democracy has been used to mask over-exploitation and create the "natural place" of black people; Finally, we highlight how the myth of racial democracy has been used to create the "natural place" of black people. 

The aim of this Master's thesis is to investigate the relationship between the concepts of work, rationality, and technology in Herbert Marcuse's work between 1928 and 1964, with the ultimate aim of contextualizing the critique of technology in One-Dimensional Man. To this end, relevant works from three different moments in this period were selected. Firstly, we investigate the role of the notion of labor both in Marcuse's re-reading of Heideggerian phenomenology, which he intended to use to complement Marxism, and in his own ontological conception of labor. Secondly, it is shown how, after joining the Institute for Social Research, there is a rationalist turn in Marcuse's thinking. The second chapter of this work aims to show how Marcuse set rationality as a parameter for a social organization aimed at human fulfillment, without, however, failing to criticize some of its developments and assumptions. In this context, Marcuse writes his first critique of technology, which is analyzed in this dissertation alongside his critique of rationality and some excerpts from Marx on the development of industry. In the third chapter, labor, rationality, and technology converge in Marcuse's analysis of one-dimensional society. The aim is to show how, in Marcuse's work, the ambiguity of technology and its effects on labor are directly related to the ambiguity of rationality itself. Finally, it presents some of the solutions proposed by Marcuse to bring together the realms of necessity and freedom.  In the light of the research, the aim is to contribute to the current debates on the subject, particularly those postulated by Andrew Feenberg and John Abromeit.

The antagonism between reason and instinct is at the core of the criticism that the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche leveled against Socrates. Nietzsche saw in him the authority behind an innovative movement that was responsible for leading the Greeks from an artistic culture, where instincts prevailed, to a new culture based on rational principles. Socrates, according to Nietzsche, founded a revolutionary form of reflection within Greek culture and among young Athenians, in which logical principles were the key to understanding reality, confirmed by his eloquent argumentative ability. The Socrates presented by Nietzsche is an ambivalent figure: a character capable of great achievements but, due to his excessively logical nature and declared opposition to instincts, a monstrosity per defectum, as stated in The Birth of Tragedy. 

The present research aims to reflect about the Absurdity, central concept of the philosophical essay The Myth of Sisyphus: Essay on the Absurd (1942), in dialogue with the narrative essays from his youth, The Other Side and the Right (1937) and Marriage in Tipasa (1939), works by the French-Algerian philosopher Albert Camus (1913-1960). Camus’ philosophy is marked by the limitation of reason in apprehending reality, restricting itself to describing appearances, changes, and movements of the Becoming. The image is designated for the representation of the rational obstacle, functioning as an argumentative resource in order to build the philosophical concept, through successive images that illustrate the transitoriness of reality. In this way, the concept of the Absurd is formed from the imagetic representations that illustrate the negative condition of human existence. The images refer to the ways that the Absurd affects the human being. First, in the sensible form called "feeling of Absurdity", then in the intellectual form, named "notion of Absurdity", a Camus’ expression that denotes the concept of Absurdity. Finally, the paper moves towards the analysis of the narrative essays of youth in the light of the Absurd, in order to unveil the presence of the concept since the first writings of Albert Camus, indicating the conceptual link between the analyzed essays.

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The purpose of this research is to make explicit the conceptual triad of autarchy (autárkeia), freedom (eleuthería) and friendship (philía) which, when articulated, makes possible an ethical interpretation of Epicurus' thought about human relations in molecular communities. The investigation begins with a general introduction about Epicurus' ethics, the scope and possibilities of this ethics, establishing relationships between the primary textual sources - namely, Letter to Herodotus, Letter to Pythocles, and Letter to Menoeceus, in addition to the Principal Docrtines, the Vatican Sayings and, finally, the fragments of the Peri Phýseos (On Nature) of Epicurus. In a second moment, the purpose here is to present the basic notions that appear in the remaining texts of Epicurus as basic notions helping to define the concept of human relations. The contexture of these concepts will serve to demonstrate what kind of human relationships can be assessed in these molecular communities and how they differ from the worn-out human relationships of the decadent polis. A third moment consists of showing how human relations are possible within Epicurus' philosophical community, through the definition of what Epicurus' philosophical molecular communities were, as well as showing how, within these, such human relations are made viable and possible. From this conceptual web of human relations, we will seek to tread a new path for understanding the way of life in the community of the Garden (Képos).

In this thesys, we aim to defend the proposition that Technoprogressive Transhumanism, as formulated by James Hughes and David Wood, has the potential to cultivate a new metanarrative. This metanarrative may provide a framework for envisaging solutions to the numerous atrocities culminating in existential risk. Transhumanism is not a singular, all-encompassing philosophical, cultural, political, and social movement. The subdivisions primarily arise due to the political nuances guiding each submovement. Alongside Technoprogressive Transhumanism, there is Extropianism, established by Max More and entrenched in neoliberalism, as well as UpWingers, founded by FM-2030 – or his former name, Fereidon Esfandiary – presenting an alternative political vision to the traditional right-left dichotomy. We critique Extropianism for being grounded in the failed foundations of post-2008 neoliberalism and for its inconsistency in adopting a life-affirming philosophy based on the recurring practice of austerity. We argue that, while transhumanism has its roots in humanism, its propositions surpass it. Despite the benefits humanism provided by introducing the concept of the human and its associated dignity, rights, and prerogatives, thus liberating us from dependence on the divine, the movement also initiated processes of dehumanization. Consequently, it falls to Technoprogressive Transhumanism to propose a utopian scenario wherein an end to the suffering of humans and other animals is envisaged through the use of technology, an extension of our nature, and an optimistic philosophy of life affirmation.

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The present dissertation investigates an analogy between the psykhé and the polis in Plato's The Republic and seeks that the functions that citizens play in the polis correspond to the nature of the psykhé to demonstrate in each one. To that end, let us analyze the human soul to understand its three principles and how it can be triadic and one; What are the classes that we present the structure of its ideal polis and we verify if there are classes and principles of the soul, and, finally, we understand an analogical relationship between a relationship between the soul and polis by the philosopher of the Academy. 

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The present work deals with aspects of the epistemology proposed by Gaston Bachelard and its intent is to look closely at Bachelard's approach of epistemic obstacles and applied rationalism. In the analysis proposed, one can notice that the process of scientific practice is filled with epistemic obstacles that interfere directly in the relationship between scientist-research. The path chosen here presents Kant’s scientific demarcation and analises components that permeate the image of scientific

This master's thesis aims to demonstrate that the philosophy of Cornelius Castoriadis profoundly renews the question of the subject in philosophy from a double condition of the human, that is, the social-historical dimension, on the one hand, and the psychic dimension, on the other, and the interweaving of these elements. Castoriadis thus presents the fundamentals for the development of the subject's autonomy, the realization of his creative nature and the affirmation of his truth. The work resulting from our bibliographical research is structured in three chapters, the first of which is dedicated to the ontological conception of the author, based on the concept of creation and having Greek thought as the main exponent of original creation. The second chapter deals with the conceptions of the imaginary preceding Castoriadis, allowing us to highlight the author's originality, through the intertwining of the psychic imagination and the imaginary in the social-historical domain. The third and last chapter is dedicated to the issue of autonomy, in the subjective and collective scope, finally approaching the issue of ecology and its current developments.

O objetivo de nosso trabalho é demonstrar a possibilidade de conciliação entre o procedimentalismo habermasiano e o princípio da justiça social, especialmente, quando este estiver associado ao projeto civilizatório, emancipador e humanista da Modernidade. Para tanto, realizamos uma leitura crítica do processo de legitimação da teoria da democracia de Habermas, exposta em Direito e democracia: entre facticidade e validade, ancorada na ambiguidade acerca da questão da justiça social. Contrapomos a teoria democrática “madura” de Habermas com sua ampla perspectiva política, presentes nos textos políticos pré e pós Direito e democracia: entre facticidade e validade, e com os princípios teóricos sob os quais ela se assenta, além, de nos valermos das observações críticas de importantes comentadores e intérpretes especializados. Nossa tese é a de que o princípio da justiça social pode ser encontrado, e justificado, nas premissas e na perspectiva geral da teoria política habermasiana, que aspira alcançar a antiga promessa do projeto de uma sociedade livre, justa, racional e auto-organizada. A teoria democrática de Habermas em Direito e democracia: entre facticidade e validade elenca duas fontes de legitimação que serão contraditas por ele em textos posteriores, onde se ressalta que não haveria legitimidade democrática sem justiça social. Isto nos levou ao seguinte dilema: esta ambiguidade aponta para uma contradição grave na teoria democrática ou é uma simples retórica, haja vista que Habermas se mantém fiel às suas premissas centrais? É possível pensar uma democracia radical e uma sociedade livre e justa sem justiça social? Devemos simplesmente, para isso, abandonar a argumentação sobre a legitimação democrática contida em Direito e democracia: entre facticidade e validade? A favor da posição de Direito e democracia: entre facticidade e validade encontra-se a constatação de direitos fundamentais sociais. A seu desfavor, a crítica excessiva a esses direitos, a rejeição do Estado de bem-estar social e, ainda, a ausência de uma proposta substituta. Argumentamos que a solução deste dilema passa pela compreensão dos direitos sociais como direitos fundamentais imprescindíveis e pelo entendimento de que um projeto político é também um projeto civilizatório, que, enquanto tal, não frutifica sem sensibilidade social perante o próximo e sem a institucionalização de um Estado social. Nosso trabalho contribui para preencher uma lacuna de uma importante problemática, até então secundarizada, do pensamento político habermasiano, que trata sobre a imprescindível e urgente reflexão sobre os fundamentos teóricos da legitimação democrática, tão duramente contestados na sociedade contemporânea.

Although not always explicit, Michel Foucault's interest in psychoanalysis was deep and enduring. Too deep, perhaps, to make him a mere partisan; but lasting enough to, without detracting from its rigor, engender in him frequent changes of perspective in relation to her. The Will to Knowledge (1976) and the other volumes of the History of Sexuality (1984a, 1984b, 2018) illustrate this. The first presents a set of essays critical to the founding concepts of psychoanalysis, and the others, from a genealogical perspective, take up essential notions such as “sexuality” and “desire” from it. However, The Will to Knowledge can also be approached from other perspectives, as an “invitation to philosophy” and as a “philosophical game”. In the first case, it should not be interpreted as an invitation to philosophical discourse, but rather to philosophical practice. In the second, it is the fact that its origin comes from practices that contain game characteristics that allows it to be conceived as a philosophical game. In view of this, there are two objectives: to contextualize the conception of The Will to Knowledge through a survey of Foucault's relationship with psychoanalysis and to theoretically situate Foucault's philosophical game from a review of the philosophical notions of game. In a second moment, the notion of desire is problematized and the problem of true-saying is addressed within the scope of the ethical constitution of the subject. Here too, there are two objectives: to point out the passage from “criticism of the truth of desire” to “appreciation of the courage of truth” as constituting an ethos; and to articulate the “philosophical way of life” with “parrhesia”. At this point, some questions arise: given the innumerable forms taken by parrhesia throughout history, should we not admit that the practice of parrhesia is largely adaptable and, therefore, subject to adaptation to the contemporary world? Given the functions historically performed by parrhesia, is it not reasonable to assume that, once acclimated to certain current scenarios, this practice should be recognized as a device for the ethical constitution of the subject? Furthermore, is it not likely that the parrhesiastic game, by maintaining a constitutive relationship with the truth, would exert a decisive influence on the ethical formation of the subject who opts for the intellectual way of life? Finally, apart from some hypotheses and ideas linked to them, the problems and arguments reproduced here are largely based on reviews of primary and secondary literature, as well as on works by Michel Foucault's interlocutors.

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Freedom is a fundamental theme not only in the History of Philosophy, but also in
Christian Thought. In the same way that this theme went through the entire history of thought,
so it was in the Christian Tradition, having its main systematization with Saint Augustine.
From this assumption, this thesis seeks to reflect on the influence that the notion of freedom
developed
by Saint Augustine inspired the thinking of Martin Luther and John Calvin on the same
theme, in the 16th century.

The objective of this work is to analyze the criticism that the american philosopher Michael Sandel directs to the techniques of human genetic enhancement, in order to compare it with the author’s broader work. Based on this, we hope to show some nuances of the more social aspect of Sandel’s argument ignored by many of his readers, as well as point out the limits of his criticism, suggesting both that he assumes some premisses that are not free from contestation and that other parts of his writings offer elements that make the author’s rejection of genetic enhancements less radical than it might seem at first glance. In order to do so, we begin with a very brief description of the technological and philosophical scenario in which the debate on human genetic enhancement takes place (introduction), a description that we must narrow and deepen in the first chapter, when dealing with the theme of liberal eugenics. We continue, in the second chapter, with a brief assessment of the criticism directed against this movement by the german philosopher Jürgen Habermas. In the third chapter, when we finally get to know Michael Sandel's critique of human genetic enhancement, we will make an incursion into his broader ideas about politics, in order to provide a background capable of lending more strength to his bioethical position. In the fourth chapter is where we outline our criticism of this author, which we believe is capable of weakening the reliability and supposed inevitability of the scenario he draws for a future of enhanced people. Finally, in our fifth and final chapter, we describe what, in our opinion, is the main risk of enhancements, contrasting it with those pointed out by Sandel, risks that, although do not make the more general idea of genetic enhancements unfeasible, require special care about its distribution.

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The Zambranian appealing to an integrating poetic reason capable of recovering the “mysterious nexus” that unites us and reality finds an echo that gradually intensifies, gaining considerable spaces of attention in philosophy nowadays. However, it is not always easy to orient yourself in the writing of this author, who, attracted by the writing of poetic inspiration, offers us an enigmatic language even now, despite the relative work of the commentators. Little known, it seduces us with the invitation to penetrate a ground with a lack of indications. In order to make her affective contributions, she wrotes texts that open up an immense field of interpretations and faces, in any case, the problem of establishing the coordinates for this thinking - a circumstance that could determine the place of her thought and the time of your word. This work seeks to answer a challenge, to raise the voice of this thinker. Such an attempt is to promote the exchange of readings taken from different points of view and from the development of the different aspects that marked the author's work, in the sense of creating a path where metaphors are reconciled to give body to the philosopher's proposal: the poetic reason. This will happen, first, from the elaboration of the author's writing, pointing to her trajectory that calls for the union between life and thought, besides considering the writing of poetic inspiration and, to a certain extent, mystical. Then, a return to Socrates and Plato will be made to understand the dimension of dialogue and words, rescuing the author's exile to understand the dimension of the human from the return to the cave. Finally, we have the method used by the author for poetic reason, established from an interpretative turn of the Cartesian method, ending with some conclusions.

If there is a theme that spans though the entire philosophical trajectory of Merleau-Ponty and which, both, places him in the interior of a tradition inaugurated by Descartes as well as in radical opposition to this same tradition, that would be the problem of the relations of consciousness and nature. It is posed as the orienting question in his first published book, The structure of behaviour, and is also present in Phenomenology of Perception; in both of these texts it is treated in terms of a shifting of the comprehension, since Descartes, of experience and perception, anchoring them in the facticity of the body proper, explicating in perception and in experience a ground of expression. The same theme is present in the post- Phenomenology writings, only this time in the form of an interrogation towards the centrality of expression and language. It is in this sense that we propose here that The structure of behavior open up to questions that will, from then on, occupy the philosopher, that this text does not get expired in view of the movements that followed it by the author, rather, that it gained in profundity, that if it already introduces us to axial issues that will guide future researches, simultaneously, it becomes, as the work progress, an aspect of the totality of the work, in the sense that we may now say that it illuminates and is illuminated by the thought that succeeds it. Our first movement (chapter 1) focus on his critique of a Cartesianism established and which dominates modern philosophy and science, an orientation to objectivism that ignores and even subverts naïve experience and its fecundity, by bringing to light the notion of silence of the perceived world. Here we point out to a particular reading of Descartes that brings to mind the notion of the unthought which will be elaborated explicitly in the last writings, in special, in the essay “The philosopher and its shadow”. In chapters 2 and 3 we expound his critique to Gestalttheorie and to Behaviorism which, simultaneously, points out its insufficiency, since they’re never able to detach themselves from the dichotomies sedimented since Descartes, as well as to what they have of originary, that is, the notions of behavior and form. By the appropriation and radicalization of these notions, the relations between consciousness and world (or between animal and its milieu) appear ambiguous, indicating the necessity of a thinking of ambiguity that will permeates his philosophical trajectory. In the last section, we bring a reflection on how the themes addressed in chapters 1, 2, and 3 reverberate in the whole of the writings of Merleau-Ponty. Finally, I bring a short reflection on the development more explicit by the philosopher that points towards a philosophy as writing (écriture), writing such that it is both; convocated by the silence and involved by silence. If we propose, therefore, that The Structure of Behaviour has a sense that extends beyond the work itself, this is because the ambiguous aspect of our relation with the world, the silence of the perceived world, and the comprehension of perception of as already involved by expression, themes introduced in this inaugural text, are present and govern central aspects of his philosophical path.

Marsilio Ficino's philosophy is marked by a predominantly binding aspect, in which all themes come together in a single movement: from good to good. The objective of this research is to demonstrate how in this whole process the theme of light represents the link that crosses and unites all the aesthetics and metaphysics of the fiorentino master under three perspectives that are revealed both in his way of expressing the world and in your conception of it or interact with it. Firstly, it is intended to show that the philosopher of light assumes poetic rationality as an adequate instrument for the interpretation of his original cosmology. Later, it develops from the recovery of fictional figures from the mythological figures of the three graces, -  the Beauty (Pulchritudo), the Love (Amor) and the Pleasure (Voluptas) - the way in which light seems to trigger the dance of the universe, marked by the intense dialectic of the lover (Creature) and the beloved (Creator). The present investigation concludes by approaching the solar therapy proposed by Ficino, as a symbol of the human capacity to recognize in the mirror of the world, and in itself, the splendor of the divine face.

The rivalry between classical logic and its non-classical contenders occupies the centre stage in contemporary philosophical logic. The central issue is to know how to choose a logical system (or theory thereof) among the many available possibilities. A recent proposal, named logical anti-exceptionalism, claims that logical disputes may be settled through the employment of the same theory choice methods used in the hard sciences, i.e., by inference to the best explanation and the analysis of the theoretical virtues of each disputant theory. This philosophical thesis has been explored as a research agenda to investigate issues such as the revisability of logic, the a priori character of logical knowledge, the logical pluralism/monism debate, the methods for theory choice in logical theorizing, and other related questions. The present monograph is an investigation of foundational topics within logical anti-exceptionalism and its relation to one specific class of non-classical logics, namely paraconsistent logics. Paraconsistent logics are known to accommodate contradictions in a non-explosive way, a feature not shared by classical logic. However, to what extent they can be considered as legitimate opponents to classical logic is still a matter of debate. Whereas some authors defend paraconsistent logics as mere amendments to faulty applications of classical logic, others defend them as a natural surrogate of the latter. One also finds authors that defend the use of classical logic in our metalanguage as well suited for our scientific purposes, in opposition to those that claim that our metalanguage ought to be reformed by non-classical concepts. The first part of the present thesis explores foundational issues of the anti-exceptionalist debate. Topics such as the relation between anti-exceptionalism and aprioricity, the underdetermined character of logical data, and the background logic problem, are introduced and addressed. The second part is devoted to technical aspects of paraconsistent logics. The main results are the introduction of a new family of nonmonotonic first-order paraconsistent logics capable of satisfying important metaproperties of nonmonotonic logics.

This thesis aims to contribute with the research about Kant and Habermas, involving their distinctions and similarities in the field of political philosophy, especially regarding cosmopolitan thought. In the discussion of this issue, it is required an analysis on Habermas’ critique about the deficit and update of philosopher Kant’s cosmopolitan theory. That is, the study focuses on questioning whether Habermas responds or not to the critique of cosmopolitan thought concerning the Kantian proposal. From this perspective, it has been important to highlight arguments that claim not to achieve such lucubrations, only through classical-liberal and republican perspective of Kant’s political thought. Thus, the study presents Habermas’ efforts in the direction of rescuing Kantian cosmopolitan thought from a historical premise. Therefore, this author’s position is emphasized in the face of  historical framework and real data of the Modern Worlds, such as in the two following questions: Does the United Nations’ format surpass Kant’s cosmopolitan conjectures about the league of nations, or was there an error in Kant’s theoretical formulation? Habermas also starts from the issue which tries to explain if the philosopher Kant had a very strong conception of nation-state sovereignty. Is it possible that, because of this conception of a strong nation-State, there is no permission for an intervention on behalf of Human Rights to occur? In order to try to answer these and other questions, this thesis also has the scope to find the assumption of political concepts’ primacy of a cosmopolitan and plural society. Based on this, the historical premise of Habermas (2018) suffers from depth, due to the fact that the Cosmopolitan Project has a serious difficulty to be implemented for the reason that, once again, it arises from the imposition of a civilizing process that goes against the historical, social, and cultural reality outside the Western world. Having this issue as an additional, in an attempt to achieve the hypotheses, the argument about the minimalist position by the historical premise in Habermas stands out, being possible to see it in the existing idea of a forum to discuss conflicts among nations, as it happens to the United Nations. Although the philosopher also evidenced efforts for a maximalist position, arising from the construct of reason, which idealizes the possibility of a World State. Bearing in mind that the right also implies coercion in relation to the global contract carried out among nations, and its supranationals and transnational aspects. The thesis concludes by demonstrating that Habermas tries to correct the democratic deficit of popular sovereignty, in the light of the historical premise in his discursive and political theory, mainly with regard to Kant’s liberal and republican theory. Therefore, indicating a Constitutional Democracy that opens doors to a multicultural citizenship, by having the reach of the Cosmopolitan Project as a scope.

    This research aims to investigate the works of Jurgen Habermas (1929-) second phase in order to demonstrate the modernity defense that the heir of the Frankfurt School carries out when realizes the emergence of the post-modernity. According to him, the idea of a rupture with modern world is a mistake, representing, in fact, just an incomprehension about the meaning of modernity as consciousness of time, characterized by the problem of self-reassurance and the double process of social rationalizing, and the intention to depart from the project formulated by the Aufklärung. This dissertation will have as main reference the work O Discurso Filosófico da Modernidade (1985) and adjacent works like Pequenos Escritos Políticos V (1985) and A Teoria do Agir Comunicativo (1981). It having those works as theoric horizon, this research was organized in four chapters. In the first chapter, there is an exhibition of habermasian project for the construction of a society critical theory, defending the concept of emancipation and the modernity assumptions, as well as refusing vehemently the prefix “post” to define our historic period. The second chapter approaches the first aspect of habermasian criticism to post-modernity: the incomprehension, in other words, the fact that postmodern philosophers want to break away from the modern foundations, but still being stuck to them. It will be evident that the incomprehension is a fruit of a wrong modernity analysis that doesn’t consider the central problems pointed out by Hegel and Weber. After the characterization of modernity meaning, we will get into the third chapter, in which there is an exposition of the real intention that exists in attempt to break with modern world and how this attitude is relationed to the thoughts that prevail among Nietzsche and the heirs of Hegel. In conclusion, the fourth chapter resumes the way that Habermas intends to persist with the Aufklärung project through a change of paradigm that abandons the subject-centered philosophy and points out the one that is centered on communication and mutual agreement between individuals who are able to talk and act.

   According to the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860), the essence of every existing being in Nature is Will. Human being is one of the various appearances of the Will as it appears in its mirror, which is the world as representation. This work focuses the Schopenhauerian vision of the world as Will, choosing as an object of study the peculiarities assumed by the will when it objetifies itself as the human essence and moves towards the practical and moral developments that can be found in Schopenhauer’s thought for an understanding concerning human essence. Thus, this work begins by explaining Schopenhauer’s fundamental thesis that the Will constitutes the metaphysical essence and the core of man, starting from the analysis of its primacy in our self-consciousness regarding the intellect. The practical developments of this thesis can be found in the way the will determines individual’s way of life. Depending on his prevailing inclinations, one person will lead a life devoted to the pursuit for a certain type of pleasure, which can be in the order of sensations, in the order of vanity, of pure knowledge, of aesthetic pleasure, of engaging in creative activities etc. The scope of morality opens up in Schopenhauerian thought from the analysis of the nature of the motivation behind the actions – or “acts of will”. Schopenhauer establishes three basic motivations for acting: egoism, malice and compassion. Each of them is associated with a specific degree of vehemence of the will, which, in turn, determines how attached to the principle of individuation – a principle that gathers the a priori forms of space and time in the apprehension of the multiple appearances of the Will. For Schopenhauer, moral conduct is only possible when the principle of individuation does not dominate the subject’s way of knowing, allowing him to recognize that his essence is identical to that of the other. It is from this recognition that justice, kindness and compassion are born. Thus, our work concludes with an attempt to explain the intricate way Schopenhauer ties his analysis of the motivation of an individual’s actions to the analysis of how deeply this subject recognizes his essential connection with other beings of nature, once that all that exists is a manifestation of the same Will.

This paper aims to verify the compatibility between the practice of civil disobedience and the structure of a constitutional democratic society within the theory of the American philosopher John Rawls. To do so, basics that permeate Rawls’s theory of justice as fairness are analyzed - with particular emphasis on his idea of social contract and its arising principles of justice - its later configuration as a political conception of justice for a society as the main ideas and conceptions related to this concept are also explored. This paper also investigates the notions of justice and legitimacy of Law from a rawlsian perspective, as well as the analysis as considerations of the author on the rule of law. The fundamentals of obedience to the law are also approached from the perspective of justice theory as fairness, focusing on the applicable principles of justice to individual: the principle of fairness and the natural duties. It also promotes an analysis of the concept of civil disobedience, emphasizing its definition, justification and its role in democratic society, as well as distinguishing other forms of dissent from the law, such as militant resistance and conscientious objection. It still points out similarities and differences between Rawls's concept of civil disobedience and those from other authors such as Etiénne de La Boétie, Henry David Thoreau, Hugo Adam Bedau, and Martin Luther King. In the end, it is argued that civil disobedience has a stabilizing and therapeutic feature in democratic society and serves not only as a device for defending constitutional justice, but also as an appeal to maintain political order in the terms of public reason idea, although it is, in Rawls' theory, an excessively restrictive concept that does not reach the dimension of the conflict between democracy as a set of institutions and civil disobedience as an extra-institutional democratic manifestation that can assume insurrectional forms.

According to the Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek, ideology is not only something imposed on us. Rather, ideology is our spontaneous relation to the world, and operates in a way which is homologous to Lacan’s concept of fantasy. For Lacan, one of the main sources of inspiration for Žižek’s philosophy, masks the flaws of symbolic reality: fantasy is a form of social bond which determine value and meaning to our concrete reality. Fantasy is oftentimes an unconscious illusion which makes us disregard our direct relation with socially shared reality. Žižek claims the existence of an ideological fantasy, since the ideology masks reality just like fantasy does. Starting from this analysis, Žižek perceives that we need to remain within fiction and illusion to deal with ideology. This fiction, of course, should not be an imaginary illusion. Rather it should be a symbolic illusion which includes reality within itself. Thus, one could ask: if there is no way out of ideology (because ideology is our way to relate to the world), if there is no strategy for disalienation, how can we identify and distinguish a “truthful illusion”, a “real fantasy”, from an imaginary illusion which would be imposed on us?

This thesis aims to explore the problem of inner experience involved in Georges Bataille’s approach. This work focuses on the Atheological summa and discusses the inner experience as experience that denies the external authority, i.e. as sovereign experience. For Bataille, the authority of the inner experience is the own experience, but the authority expiates itself. The experience is a constant movement of dogma’s contestation and the subject that lives by this contestation is a subject of the anguish and ecstasy’s limits. As Foucault claims in his Preface to the transgression, the Bataille’s inner experience is a limit-experience, the excess commands the experience that is the experience of a subject loss. Thus, Bataille’s thought is a critique of Hegel’s negativity, because the negation of inner experience is useless negativity. Bataille wanted to think a philosophy opposite to Hegel’s, a philosophy that puts itself into the discursive question. The writing about the inner experience reflects the hard quest to discuss the experience that escapes from the discursive forms. Answering the experience discourse difficulties, Bataille does some operation in the essence of language, like figurations and evocations of some images in order to expose a lacerated subject through altered discursive forms. Furthermore, we claim in this thesis to discuss the eroticism as a manifestation of the inner experience and body inscription into the field of the desire violence, covering the concepts of transgression and prohibitions, or transgression and limits.

This doctoral thesis aims to address the issue of space theorized by the French philosopher Gaston Bachelard (1884-1962) and its circularity relationship between the concepts of meta-ontology and geopoetics. This work is an unprecedented research in that it recovers the genealogy of the concept of meta-ontology in the writings of Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) and applies it in the context of Bachelardian philosophy. The present text aims to analyze these passages mainly from the works The experience of space in Contemporary Physics and The Poetics of Space, however, we go beyond these works and cross the entire work of Bachelard, including his articles and reviews, some still unpublished in Portuguese.  In this way of going beyond the philosopher's work, we find the concept of geopoetic mainly in the reception of one of the heirs of Bachelard's thought, Wunenburger, and we realize that it is perfectly aligned with the perspective we have adopted; The fact that science is the aesthetics of intelligence makes room for a Bachelardian interpretation that it is possible to use aesthetics as the basis of an understanding of science, that is, the aesthetics of intelligence is to throw the reader into the taste for science. In this way, we will find approximations and ruptures between the works of Heidegger and Bachelard, taking as main example the question of technique. Another meeting point is the fact that both philosophers had contact with the sculptures of Eduardo Chillida. Aiming to highlight the materiality of concrete space, the earth element is worked during much of this thesis to demonstrate the path of overcoming the matter-form dichotomy, where the spatiality of the surfaces lead us to the metaphysical depth of the roots fed by the being of the earth. The conclusion is intended to show how space, as a meta-ontological construction (and not conceived as a priori) inaugurates a different form of thought, which goes beyond an ontheological metaphysics, constituting an ontological metatechnique that relates language - image - concept of both poetic and epistemological form. And in this there is an implicit critique of analytic philosophies, so that they do not reappropriate ontology's own concepts, but that meta-ontology builds a language that creates a new being of space, science, and elements.

What do we know when we know the meaning of a sentence or language? This is a fundamental question for Michael Dummett's thinking in his book 'The logical basis of metaphysics'. Given the possible responses, logical-formal criteria will be sought to outline how these so-called theories of meaning are distinguished. When such a characterization of language is possible, we gain a way of discussing different metaphysical views via their respective theories of meaning. As a knowledge that deals with the topic of unconscious meaning, psychoanalysis can benefit from this. Would its scientific status, which is often attacked, be better measured if we were able to formalize its concepts? We believe it is possible to highlight the linguistic practice of psychoanalysis and apply to it the formal criteria demanded by Dummett for a description of a theory of meaning. We can at least begin this work by analyzing a theme often overlooked by psychoanalysts: jokes. If only we give the indications of how this can be done, future work may formally indicate what kind of science we can expect from psychoanalysis, as well as how it connects with metaphysics.

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       Ever since the man decided to leave the cave and discover the world, he took several desires with him. Among the many desires he still carry in his power, perhaps the one that affects him in a vital way, or more accurately saying, in an essential way, since it is necessary for the maintenance of life, is the desire to overcome himself. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), who sought to understand very deeply an inner tension of human feeling, brought up with the "superman" as a proposal for the overcoming of man through a force derived from the individual himself; in order to transvalue the dichotomies, errors and prejudices that denied existence, for the sake of its own affirmation. The proposal of overcoming the man, announced by Nietzsche in the second half of the nineteenth century, returns later, but no longer through the idea of a force derived from the individual himself, but through his improvement by means of technological devices, promising to make man into a "superhuman". This current proposal promoted by transhumanism understands that man is not the final stage of human evolution and must be overcome by technological devices that will contribute to the enhancement of his capabilities – entering an existence in which all the characteristics of the body will be improved.

        The present dissertation aims to explore three basic paths in Immanuel Kant's work (1724-1804): a) in the Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787), investigating the problem of the conciliation between freedom and nature in the third antinomy, demonstrating how, from a critical solution rooted in Transcendental Idealism (above all through the phenomenon/thing-in-itself distinction), can the criticism's system admit the theoretical possibility of the concept of freedom; b) in the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), examining to what extent this same concept of freedom is considered from a practical point of view, thus contributing to the establishment of a reason-based analytic of morality; c) in the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), reconstructing the main arguments that evaluate the hypothesis of a pure practical reason, whose law, which guides acting, is considered as a fact immediately recognized by the moral conscience. The dissertation also essays the relationship between a pure moral philosophy (as sustained in the Groundwork and in the second Critique) and what would be a second part of the ethics, called by Kant Practical Anthropology (or, simply, applied moral philosophy), whose task would be mainly to study the subjective conditions (belonging to sensibly based human nature), contrary or favorable to the implementation of the laws of practical reason. In this way, would not be the concept of freedom mere possibility of an immediate (that is, a priori) determination of the will by means of reason, but also that which would allows the moral experience, taken in a concrete sense (this, the object of Anthropology).

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      This dissertation aims to analyze, expose, verify and reflect on the concepts of Reason and History in the scientific and philosophical system elaborated by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), according to the perspective of the culture (Bildung) of the subject that reveals everything the process of formation that engenders the absolute logic of the idea, as well as the logos of nature and the movement of the Spirit. Such an education can only be realized when the subject acquires a philosophical culture that, from the dialectical method of historical investigation, was created by the schools of Philosophy that arose in classical Greece. Starting with Thales until get to Aristotle. The concept of substance and subject were defined by some of these thinkers who synthesized the organic mechanism of the whole as divine cause under the precept of conceptual theorist. Hegel is influenced by the studies of these philosophers who clarified the history of this knowledge that was still bound to the geocentric cause of the universe. It is in this political context of scientific discovery that the Greek city has since become the scene of studies regarding political power, the science of nature and the science of man, as well as concern for the destiny tragic of every generation that is tamed by the thought that corrupts the gods, nature and men. To make a judgment of the historical spirit of modern man and of all ancient world that precedes it, Hegel had to take cognizance of the crisis which evidences the tragic ethos of all Western culture that begins to be examined by Sophocles (495 b.C - 406 b.C) that wrote the first police novel in history. It is for this purpose that the poet reveals the decadence of the mythology repressed in the boat of Theseus, that is, in the State and its reason of being real, ideal and corrupted. The reason of State based on fortune and force of natural law is put in check by the hegelian logos. Therefore, the philosophical culture of the subject who acquires the freedom to think in History is only possible through the realization of self-consciousness within a State of law according to its prescription based on the idea of moral Reason that breaks with the dictates of power reflected in the law of the fittest. This trial is pronounced by the philosophical tribunal according to the defense of Philosophy as a rigorous science that investigates the whole history of man and the world through its concepts.

      In order to situate Schopenhauer's philosophy based on the hegemony of the will over the beings, this research aims to show how human existence can be considered as absurd, based on conflicts and struggles motivated by the wanting in pursue of endless satisfactions. To this end, we divide the research into four chapters: the first three chapters contemplates the main concepts and understandings that underlie the condition of man as a volitional being and submitted to the irrational force of the will exposed in the World as Will and Representation and the last chapter consists of the analysis of human existence as absurd, based on Clément Rosset's interpretation of the absurd in Schopenhauer, philosophe de l'absurde.

The change in the world political and economic order started after World War II made Jürge Habermas reflect and write about it. The aim of this paper is to study the evolution of the Habermasian cosmopolitan theory, which studied the conditions of democracy in the National States, but, in view of the new configurations of the world order and based on the cosmopolitan ideas of Immanuel Kant, he revised some of his concepts and presented new formulations for a democratic and peaceful world society. Habermas studied the formation of the political structures of the National States and, in view of the irreversibility of globalization, suggested a legitimate political formation in plural societies, from procedural conditions of democracy different from those observed in the national states, but possible. He realized in the chaotic relationship maintained by the subjects of international law an unsustainable situation, which always led to war, and formulated a new configuration of these subjects structured in levels of power and political competence, to practice democracy, maintain peace and ensure the observance of human rights. Habermas, however, has been severely criticized on essential questions of his theory, which are also analyzed in this study and confronted in the face of Habermas's own writings and in the face of other authors who have made a different reading of Habermas' cosmopolitan theory.

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      The present work intends to investigate a possible connection between the themes wisdom of life and fear of death in the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. This work is based on the studies of The World as Will and Representation (1819-1844) Vol. I and II, and the Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life (1851). In the 1st chapter, we will make a historical review of some philosophical antecedents on the problem of wisdom against the fear of death and, in the last subsection, we will explain some influences of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) on the philosophy of Schopenhauer concerning the distinction between Will and Phenomenon. In the 2nd chapter, we intend to cross the Aphorism on the Wisdom of Life (1851) and characterology of the World. Initially, we aim to distinguish the practical reason from the wisdom of life, then we are going to clarify that the characteristics of the Wise in Schopenhauer’s work can be found in The World, but they can only be developed on the Aphorisms. Regarding the Characterology, or the three ways of acknowledging the same character (intelligible, empirical and acquired), it will be investigated the ontological bases which provide the existence of the Wise and what distinguish it from the regular human. In the 3rd chapter, we will emphasize the considerations of Schopenhauer regarding the relation between Men and Death, seeking to understand the origin of the fear of death and if there is any wisdom capable of easing this fear. At the end, we will make a mapping of the types of death present in Schopenhauerian philosophy.

        This work investigates the notion of justice, dikaiosýne, in the Republic of Plato through the analysis of the myth of Giges. Plato, in narrating the myth of Giges, exposes through his images the greatest injustice both in regard to the soul of the individual, psyché, and in regard to the city-state, pólis. Giges is the image of the tyrant, soon possesses the worst kind of soul, the tyrannical one, which reflects his political practice. Tyranny represents the greatest injustice. In making the analogy between psyché and pólis, we realized Plato's concern with ethics, politics, and the pedagogical training of citizens. Tyranny opposes the best soul and the best government that would be that of the philosopher-king. Plato uses the myth in a pedagogical, educational way, to provoke the reflection in the soul of individuals on the areté for excellence, the dikaiosýne. From the narrative of the greatest injustice, Plato goes on to make visible the maximum justice that should exist in the soul of the beautiful and good citizens and in his ideal city, the polytheia.

      This research investigates to what extent the difference principle considers the idea of fraternity as a political category in the philosophy of John Rawls. To do so, we analyze his works A Theory of Justice (1971) and, in a complementary way Political Liberalism (1993). For Rawls, to think of fraternity as a political conception is feasible if it is imagined as an ideal that meets the requirements of the difference principle. From this perspective, the inequalities allowed by just institutions only happen if they contribute to the well-being of persons who are less fortunate, and in this sense, they seem to meet the demands of fraternity. Therefore, to shed light on this understanding, we organize the text into three chapters, besides the introduction and the final remarks. The first chapter regards the theoretical framework of the theory of justice as fairness and some of its main concepts. The second chapter introduces distributive justice as in A Theory of Justice, as well as some criticisms by communitarians to justice as fairness. Finally, the third chapter addresses the difference principle and its relation to the principle of fraternity, in addition to the analysis of the main institutions for a democratic equality and to some considerations on intergenerational justice and the social minimum.

     This dissertation explores a theoretical debate about the origin and legitimation of private property in the ethical and political works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. These are themes that surround private property and the relationships established before and after its establishment in civil society. Based on the reading of the works: Discourse on the sciences and the arts (1750); Discourse on the origin of the inequality among the men (1754); Social Contract (1762); Treaty on Political Economy (1755), the dissertation is divided into two chapters. The first deals with the relation between the nature present in man as well as outside it, demonstrating the existence of a system that includes faculties and feelings exclusive to man, as it is also ordered universally. The second discusses the foundation of the contract of the rich and the legitimation of sovereign power in defense of the right to civil liberty and political, economic and social equality. In short, private property does not conceive the origin of the state, but it represents an element that united the wills and shows that a right is only really valid when all men can enjoy the same conditions necessary for the guarantee of their humanity and their life.

The present research seeks to address two fundamental concepts for the thinking of the German philosopher Martin Heidegger, are these: Being and technique. In the year 1927, Heidegger published his great work, Being and Time that was dedicated in an exemplary way to understand the sense of being, but not only that, a great step was taken in the question of the understanding of existence, as an enabling source of approximation of being and everything that requires man to being. In the lecture on The Technical Question of 1953, Heidegger once again extols the importance of the understanding of being when he presents the importance of attending to the essence of the technique. Technique, in this sense, must being understood through an ontological perspective, since the relationship itself with its essence is what can bring us closer to the understanding of the saving danger. We present the question of Dasein as being-in-the-world, being-with-be, being-in-being-together, and everyday form of being that is termed impersonal, improper, or a-gent. The improper is that being we are all in the everyday being-one-with-another. The question of technique will being presented in several aspects, we will deal with Gestell and the relation of technique to the form of being of the a-gent. We will also address the issue of saving danger and the importance’s of serenity as a meditative attitude driven by a higher will that directs us to the call of being. In this way, we will try to demonstrate, through Heideggerian thinking, the need to turn to the being and hear its echoing appeal in the midst of the technical world.

            The present work aims to analyze the general nature of the relation between knowledge and its object, taken in the most comprehensive meaning, as well as to understand how the manner we approach the distinction between both entails consequences for the areas of epistemology and metaphysics. We will seek to touch on this question by the comparative study of the philosophies of Immanuel Kant and Bernard Lonergan and by the examination of the human cognitive structure. More specifically, four problems constitute the spine of this dissertation: (1º) whether the structure of human knowledge reflects or not the structure of known reality; (2º) whether the solutions or choices adopted in the context of the former question result in palpable consequences for ontology and scientific method; (3º) whether the point of view of common sense, according to which we in fact possess a knowledge of reality or of the world, not limited to our own thought constructions, even if imperfect or partial, is defensible; (4º) whether, by investigating this theme, some lead for the solution of the universals problem could be found.

     The concept of biopolitics is a rich instrument of analysis and interpretation of the logic of power, the genealogy of government and the meaning of politics in the modern world. The different conceptions of biopolitics each have their specificities. The focus of the present study will be exclusively the biopolitical diagnosis of the present elaborated by Agamben, in which the concept of biopolitics is centered on the politicization of biological life. We seek to show how Agamben's “archeology of biopolitics” can be understood from the analysis of four fundamental notions: sovereign power, bare life, state of exception, and field. We first analyze how Agamben thought the association between the political domain and the animalization of man from the gaps left by the investigations of Arendt and Foucault. In a second moment, we examine the relationship between the sovereign organization of bodies and the state of exception. In the third chapter, we analyze the politicization of natural life and the production of homo sacer, the sacred  life. In the fourth chapter, we clarified how Agamben thought of the “field” as a secret “notion” of biopolitics in modernity. Therefore, we seek to show how Agamben's reflection on the nexus between political power and bare life is articulated around these four structuring aspects. We seek to highlight the relevant contribution that Agamben's thinking offers to the critical diagnosis of political rationality in contemporary societies, enhancing our understanding of the new forms of power in late modernity.

    This dissertation is about the tension between Maurice Blanchot and Jean-Paul Sartre, as to the ethical, political and philosophical aspect of literature. We understand that this tension is part of modern artistic subjectivity, stretched between freedom of sovereign refusal and acceptance of commitment to history, so that both writers stir up this contradiction of literature. If, on the one hand, Blanchot (2011b) affirms that literature is the door to an experience beyond itself, an experience seeks to make death possible, Sartre (2004) says that literature is the space of a relation between freedoms where a fundamental dialectic takes place that implies an awareness. Both authors conceive the human reality as negativity, hence the importance of Hegel as common ground from which tension emerges. The Hegelian philosophy, through the courses of Alexandre Kojéve (2012), with its emphasis on the idea of death, will have in Blanchot an rearticulation without which we could not understand his ideas about literature. In Sartre, Hegel’s philosophy is equally important, since his ideas about existentialism articulate not only phenomenology and Marxism (later), but the dialectic of negativity and the concrete universal. For Blanchot, literature manifests an absolute freedom, a radical interrogation that calls into question all human projects. For Sartre, this absolute freedom, which was the desire of surrealism, is conceived as a temptation to irresponsibility. The literature holds the place of an ambiguity that is present in the two authors.

Our paper aims to address the issue of domination, which was very dear in high modernity and late modernity and, it seems, relevance to a bigger and bether understanding about Western civilization from barbarism in barbarism as a destiny paving his road to decline. Our dissertation discuses about the Max Horkheimer (1898-1973) duble domination hypothesis. This research toke a path that tried do understand how our author did understand nature and man’s domination. We tried, in that paper, not only expose what is meant by duble domination, however, above all, expose how that bifurcated domination happened. To be clear, we try to follow a path that suggests us there has been an evolution in duplicated domination, this, made, our work is to show is what way was this evolution and how to identify it in the our author works over the 30s and 40s twentieth century, taking into account the historical, social, political, economic and psychological changes – climate in the thirties, we had started out by politics, in the forties we have an external nature domination that keeps on controlled by positivist science and an inner nature domination, which concerns the formation of the individual ego in civilization.

      This paper aims to point the concept and function of love in John Stuart Mill's moral theory. We will see that in this moral system, love is synonymous with sympathy. Sympathy is considered a moral feeling of high order and a pleasure of superior quality that answer the precepts of the principle of utility. This principle, which has its foundation in the hedonist thesis, recommends that men maximize happiness and move away from pain. The feeling of sympathy (love) is the disposition that men naturally possess to consider the happiness of others as being part of their own happiness. This feeling functions as a powerful moral sanction that effectively impels individuals to act according to the standard of utilitarian morality. In order to better understand the implications that surround the discussion of love in Mill's theory, we will analyze the pillars of the author's philosophical system: empiricism, hedonism, associationism, the canons of psychology, ethology, and the notion of enhancement of human nature and social institutions. These pillars give rise to a series of complexities in the theory of utility, when we compare Mill's philosophical legacy with the utilitarian tradition before the author, such as the notion of secondary principles of morality and sub-theses of the hedonist thesis. We will also analyze through the Autobiography reports how some events in the trajectory of Mill's life were decisive for the elaboration of his more complex moral system and for the love to gain prominence in his theory. Issues related to justice and freedom will also be analyzed in the light of the concept of love in Mill's theory

     This dissertation offers to discuss the moral problems underlying the war phenomenon, starting from an analysis of the Just War Theory, in the feature which is outlined inside Michael Walzer’s work. The Just War Theory starts from the perception of the situations in which it is morally justifiable to dispose the war and the violence that necessarily accompanies the latter. It is divided into two parts.Jus ad bellum concerns the motives which justify the use of war, and it is focused on aggression and self-defense discussing. Jus in bello concentrates on discussion about compliance or violation of combat rules, established rules by both custom and legal instruments. Once the two component parts of the war moral reality are logically separated, it becomes possible to make independent judgments. Thus, according to Walzer, it is possible to wage a war which is just, that is, it complies the jus ad bellum requirements, but unjust, by violating the norms which conform jus in bello. In the same way, an unjust war can be fought in accordance with the rules. Through this study, we will attempt to discuss the possibility that war can be analyzed in the light of morality, as well as whether it is possible to determine the conditions under which a war can be considered just or unjust.

   Study of the concept of political conservatism. The dissertation analyzes the concept of conservatism, which is a piece of the political right. Given the manifest semantic comprehensiveness that this term has, this work aims to identify an organization and precision of meanings that allows its use as a lexicon of political philosophy. To this aim, we explore the context of its emergence in the French revolutionary period in the late eighteenth century, which is followed by the dissensions between the ideas of the political left and right that are directly related to the concept examined. The study addresses the emotive charge that accompanies this category, the progressive and Marxist critiques, and the very particular interrelationships with political and social psychologies. The use of the term in economics and aspects of psychoanalytic practice are presented as part of the cartography of the lexicon conservatism, whose observation is fruitful to validate the previously marked lexical demarcations. The study comprised the analysis of one of the most important works for the category: Reflections on the Revolution in France, by Edmund Burke, as well as the text that inaugurates the historical antinomy of conservatism, Rights of Man, by Thomas Paine. Contemporary studies directly related to semantic construction have housed chapter 11 of Robert E. Goodin's The Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, Philip Pettit and Thomas Pogge, whose theme is: Conservatism – from the work of Anthony Quinton; The entry “Conservatism”, written by Tiziano Bonnazi, in the Dictionary of Politics of Norberto Bobbio, Nicola Matteucci and Gianfranco Pasquino; and the book The Classical Conservatism, authored by Laura Escorsim Netto. These were the primary sources of this study. This work concludes by highlighting the relevance and scope that this contemporary category can have in political philosophy, constituting an effort to interpret events that are conflicted and paradoxical in social reality.

   The following dissertation suggests being an introduction to the heideggerian's thinking process. Making justice to the presented conference entitled "What`s that – The Philosophy?", as well the introduction to "Being and Time" will represent the textual base to this journey. Beginning with this prelection the author introduces the fundamental concepts of his thought process. The discussed topics in this tessitura are the following:  the essence of philosophy, the destruction project, the forgetfulness of the being and the taking back of the question through this last named.  In that perspective, it will be explicit how the inquired concepts here are suggesting  an basic unity of an existence between themselves, evidencing the co-dependence of both and the obvious impossibility of separation of any of both in mutual providence of understandings. Getting it straight, since the explicitation and discussion of the above mentioned, embased in both of the refered works, will possible a proper compreheension of the necessity, the structure and the precedence of heideggerian philosophy, also there will be offered new lights and mind clarity in which exact horizont should the own reader guides himself to crystal clean thinking clearness of the mentioned author here at stake. 

     Jacques Rancière argues that the attempts of philosophy to understand the aesthetic and political revolutions throughout history were insufficient or erroneous and presents a new way to bring together aesthetics and politics in order to understand the movements of the structure he calls the distribution of the sensible. This work presents, first, an analysis of the three regimes of arts, namely: ethical, representative and aesthetic; relating them to their respective powers to maintain the distribution of the sensible (police) or cause disruptions (policy) that change that distributions. The first two regimes are analysed in the first chapter, exposing the problems encountered by Rancière in each of them, especially with regard to the second regime, which, according to the author, still very present in contemporary times, and is the system in which are part of many authors who think contemporary aesthetics. The second chapter, dedicated to the aesthetic regime, aims to demonstrate the origins of the aesthetic revolution from a review of the spectator's role, thought whose origin Rancière extracts from Schiller and whose revolution is found in the literature since Flaubert, on the power of the mute speech. It intends to use the latter concept, the muteness of things that speak, to examine how the aesthetic regime scheme redefine our relationship with the images, which will be demonstrated through the analysis that Rancière makes of the thwart of the film images, of the thwarted fable. Finally, the role of these specific images (images of arts) will be shown in the context of politics, which for Rancière is inseparable from the aesthetic.

Logical pluralism has recently been given much attention, with numerous authors pitching in on what they believe it to be about. In a broad sense, logical pluralism is the view that there are more than one correct or legitimate logic, which can be articulated in different ways. Among the varieties of pluralism, the present study participates in this debate by exploring B-entailment in the context of several of them. B-entailment is a logical consequence relation, which may express different consequence relations, such as those of many-dimensional logics. In particular, this study examines four different takes on pluralism: Shapiros's eclectic pluralism, Beall and Restall's GTT pluralism, Hjortland's intra-theoretic pluralism and Restall's and Paoli's pluralism based on proof-theory. It will be shown how B-entailment fits into these pluralistic theories, and a discussion is presented on how B-entailment falls short is some aspects. The aim is to contribute to the discussion on logical pluralism as well as to expand the discussion about B-entailment and consequence relations of this sort.

     Este trabalho irá discorrer sobre a visão de Herbert Paul Grice com relação à linguagem e ao processo de comunicação. Grice é mais conhecido por sua separação entre significação natural e significação não natural, onde a primeira trata de uma conexão natural entre fatos e a segunda de convenções que associam entidades e/ou fatos sem relações naturais entre si, sendo está última o que possibilita a comunicação humana. Ele divide a significação não natural em quatro tipos: significação atemporal, significação atemporal aplicada, significação de ocasião e significação do locutor. Apesar disto, a maior parte da literatura foca apenas na sua definição de significação do locutor, marginalizando as demais. Este fato influi no modo como sua teoria das implicaturas conversacionais é analisada. A teoria das implicaturas é muitas vezes abordada sem que se trace uma relação entre ela e o resto do pensamento griceano sobre linguagem e comunicação. Deste modo, pretendemos elucidar que tanto a significação do locutor quanto as implicaturas são partes daquilo que o próprio Grice chamou de “um projeto mais amplo”. Ao mostrarmos as ideias de Grice unidas por um mesmo enquadramento, iremos mostrar porque as implicaturas conversacionais devem ser entendidas como uma explicação sobre asignificação de ocasião, deste modo, esclarecendo como essas ideias laçam luz sobre a distinção entre semântica e pragmática.

      This dissertation intends to offer a study of Andrew Feenberg's Critical Theory of Technology, reflecting on the plausibility of realising his project of cultural and political transformation. Feenberg aims to re-signify the instrumentalization of technology and to restore a democratic political space for its development under the control of human intentionality, and according to a holistic conception of the two-dimensional essence of technology. He starts from the assumption that the current model of technological development widens inequalities while serving the social domination by those who control it, in addition to generalizing environmental and humanitarian crises. Feenberg understands capitalism as a technically structured rational system and intends  to show the potential of modern technological development as an instrument of alternative intervention capable of transforming the technologically mediated relations in industrialized societies. It is this revolutionary potential that, in this work, we interpret as an effort to hack technology. Feenberg's hacking goals are to break the barriers of control and the technocratic assertion of hegemonic capitalism, to decipher the standard of technoscientific rationality and its associated technical code and to subvert the conception and current use of technology, pointing to a development that integrates its instrumental and social dimensions.

Desde sua juventude, Nietzsche dá atenção especial ao tema da linguagem. Seu olhar filológico faz dela objeto de análise, e todo o seu pensamento filosófico não pode ser desvinculado desse tema tão importante que permeia todas as suas obras. Assim, a questão central desenvolvida nesta pesquisa consiste em refletir sobre o problema da crença na linguagem como produtora de “verdade”. No primeiro capítulo deste trabalho, entendemos que é imprescindível compreender a análise nietzschiana sobre as origens da linguagem, tendo como base os textos de juventude. O objetivo é compreender que a linguagem não é uma adequação exata da realidade e que a verdade nasce no meio gregário, sendo, desse modo, uma série de convenções e antropomorfismos. Já no segundo capítulo, nossa análise avança em direção à crítica à linguagem conceitual como forma de abreviação das coisas, como também à razão, ou “metafísica da linguagem”, como forma de discurso baseada na gramática para postular a existência de um mundo fixo, estável e imutável. Para Nietzsche, a crença na gramática fez a tradição filosófica cometer grandes equívocos, entre eles, defender a ideia de que o mundo se constitui exatamente segundo seus hábitos e pensamentos. E, no terceiro capítulo, nossa atenção estará voltada para os aspectos afirmativos do pensamento de Nietzsche sobre a linguagem. A busca por um tipo de linguagem que seja a favor da vida, considerada como vir-a-ser constante, tem o seu ápice no Zaratustra, onde Nietzsche se reapropria da linguagem para promover o ultrapassamento das categorias dicotômicas da metafísica. É aí que a sua linguagem se manifesta de forma cantada, hipotética, imagética e, além de tudo, poética.

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Gilles Deleuze escreveu comentários sobre vários filósofos, mas a relação que estabeleceu com Nietzsche tem um papel singular em seu pensamento: a apropriação conceitual do “eterno retorno” para pensar o eixo central de sua tese, Diferença e repetição, defendida em 1968. Os termos “diferença” e “repetição” apareciam em seu Nietzsche e a filosofia, de 1962, associados ao eterno retorno. Nosso trabalho analisa as apresentações do conceito nessas duas obras. O primeiro capítulo expõe a construção do estilo e o aspecto crítico e metodológico da filosofia nietzschiana, que são fundamentais à compreensão da interpretação em questão. Em seguida, analisa a primeira exposição do conceito expressa nos seguintes termos: existência estética inocente ou justificada a partir da figura do jogo. Veremos como a imagem do jogo implica outra concepção do acaso, que leva Deleuze a pensar um “tipo” filosófico afirmativo, capaz de criar novos valores. O segundo capítulo avalia o caráter existencial, “ético-seletivo” e “físico-cosmológico” do conceito, assim como as dificuldades que impõe ao intérprete de Nietzsche. Posteriormente, apresentamos a compreensão deleuziana do eterno retorno como “paródia” ou “simulacro de doutrina”. O terceiro capítulo analisa essa posição interpretativa como uma transmutação dos valores a partir de uma recombinação de perspectivas, visando superar as compreensões negativas da existência. Queremos problematizar o modo pelo qual Deleuze elabora outra imagem do pensamento, a partir do eterno retorno, aquela que, por uma espécie de “colagem” e de eliminação seletiva do negativo, propõe um trabalho historiográfico, e descobre uma linhagem de pensadores da imanência e da diferença. Um desvio do pensamento da identidade, do mesmo e do semelhante. Queremos, por fim, compreender através desse percurso, sua crítica ao que chama “imagem dogmática do pensamento”.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a possibilidade de uma abordagem ética da relação entre homens e animais que, tanto quanto possível, não se baseie nem em razões utilitárias nem em razões indiretas para explicar a atribuição de dignidade ou de direitos morais aos animais. Tomamos como pressuposto que alguns deles (se não todos) os possuem, e tentamos mostrar que uma ética de caráter deontológico, centrada no ser humano como o agente, mas não restrita a ele enquanto objeto da ação moral, pode fornecer um suporte teórico para a fundamentação de tal atribuição. A partir da análise das características principais da ética kantiana, e de algumas teorias alternativas, será possível mostrar que uma teoria ética que não pressuponha reciprocidade nem dependa exclusivamente de interesses particulares humanos não apenas é possível como também se revela a mais sensível e adequada à natureza dos nossos valores e do caso em questão.

Da relação entre autárkeia (autarquia) e eleuthería (liberdade) emerge o sentido de liberdade na

filosofia de Epicuro (341-271 a.C.). Essas noções foram textualmente relacionadas nas Sentenças

Vaticanas. Esta perspectiva é privilegiada por pôr às claras a diferença entre o sentido geral de

liberdade e seu sentido específico. Este último se identifica com a noção grega de eleuthería. O

sentido geral de liberdade abrange a physiología (investigação da natureza) e ética epicuristas.

O exame da física epicurista revela um espaço natural para as ações livres: o espaço para

construção humana (par’hemás). É nesse espaço fora do domínio da anánke (necessidade) que

os homens exercem seu poder de livre escolha e podem ser ditos causa de suas ações ou serem

caracterizados como autárquicos. O exercício da autárkeia condiciona a eleuthería (liberdade).

Para ser autárquico é preciso conhecer a si mesmo e conhecer a phýsis (natureza). De posse do

saber da natureza, o sábio se sabe livre para agir segundo sua vontade, sem intervenção de deuses

nem do destino. No serviço da filosofia, o sábio encontra a eleuthería, a liberdade em seu sentido

específico, a verdadeira liberdade, que se caracteriza por um agir “positivo”, na dependência

apenas de si mesmo. Esse é o itinerário percorrido pelo pensamento de Epicuro em direção a

solução do problema que contrapõe necessidade e liberdade: ou há anánke (necessidade) e não

somos livres ou somos livres e não há anánke. À primeira alternativa se segue o despropósito

da filosofia: não haveria razão para transmitir conhecimentos, pois tanto quem erra quanto

quem acerta, erra e acerta segundo a necessidade; à segunda alternativa se segue a ausência de

encadeamentos causais, em última instância, impossibilitando a atribuição de causa a quem quer

que seja. Assim, Epicuro preserva as noções de necessidade e de liberdade, apenas alocando-as

em suas devidas esferas de atuação. A idéia geral de liberdade no epicurismo excede àquela de

eleuthería e só pode ser compreendida na conjunção entre autárkeia e eleuthería.

O objetivo geral da pesquisa consiste em esclarecer e discutir a contribuição original de Martin Heidegger para a reflexão filosófica sobre a essência da técnica moderna. Para tanto, estruturou-se o percurso interpretativo da presente dissertação em dois momentos fundamentais. Em um primeiro momento, apresentamos a interpretação heideggeriana da essência da era moderna que, por sua vez, será reconhecida a partir do fundamento metafísico que funda a essência da ciência moderna, qual seja: a subjetividade que representa, calcula, controla e produz o real. Veremos que, nesse contexto, a ciência moderna foi pensada ainda ao lado da técnica moderna, o que vai mudar consideravelmente a partir dos escritos do pós-guerra, nos quais Heidegger pensa a ciência moderna a partir de um processo muito mais amplo e fundamental em que já vem se desdobrando a essência da técnica. Assim, em um segundo momento, analisaremos de que modo, para Heidegger, a moderna metafísica da subjetividade atingiu o seu acabamento na época da técnica moderna a partir do princípio de controle e planificação dos entes em geral (Gestell), revelando o sentido não-técnico da técnica (para além da visão antropológica, humanista e instrumental) bem como o caráter ameaçador da técnica moderna em seu projeto de conversão do ente em fundo de reserva (Bestand).

Há muito a arte já era tema de acirradas discussões filosóficas quando do surgimento da psicanálise no fim do século XIX. Com o avanço desta e seu eventual deslocamento do campo das patologias psíquicas para as produções da cultura, superpõe-se às então produções teóricas sobre a arte um discurso que implica novas categorias do acontecer psíquico no fazer artístico. Com o conceito freudiano de inconsciente todo fazer humano passou a ser concebido como comportando a marca do ser dividido que é o homem. Julgamos a experiência estética como indissociável desse fazer. E é por apostar na singularidade da abordagem psicanalítica no campo estético que nos aventuramos a propor uma descrição metapsicológica da experiência estética. Para tanto, devemos primeiramente compreender qual o critério que Freud utiliza para o uso do conceito de sublimação, este que consideramos um conceito chave para a análise da experiência estética. A experiência é dividida ainda na experiência estética do espectador, isto é, a contemplação, e a experiência do autor, isto é, criador da obra.

O escopo desse trabalho pretende investigar até que ponto o sentimento da compaixão é importante para as fundamentações morais. Desse modo, tomaremos como base de análise a fundamentação moral do filósofo Arthur Schopenhauer, em seu ensaio “Sobre o Fundamento da Moral”, que foi um defensor do sentimento da compaixão em sua fundamentação ética. A fim de aprofundarmos as discussões sobre a dicotomia do ser humano, que o divide entre razão e sensibilidade no campo moral, investigaremos, também, a crítica de Schopenhauer à moral kantiana, que é fundamentalmente racional. Entendemos que analisando tanto a sua fundamentação moral, quanto sua crítica à moral kantiana, conseguiremos entender o verdadeiro significado do sentimento da compaixão no campo moral. Sendo assim, acreditamos que se deve levar em consideração o valor desse sentimento nas fundamentações éticas. Como proposta, tentaremos uma aproximação no que diz respeito à razão e à sensibilidade no campo moral.

Jaques Lacan, o pensador que propõe um retorno às bases fundamentais da psicanálise em Freud, igualmente estipula que a matemática lhe seria cara como meio de transmissão privilegiado do saber junto à ciência moderna. O rigor dessa transmissão é o que leva esse autor a investigar os possíveis isomorfismos entre os conceitos psicanalíticos e muitos tópicos dentro das ciências exatas. Os famosos teoremas de incompletude do lógico-matemático Kurt Gödel entrariam aqui como um capítulo dessa busca. Reconhecido em tal ambiente como um verdadeiro divisor de águas, esses teoremas nunca tardam em ser citados como reveladores mesmo fora do ambiente matemático, e o próprio Lacan não se limita à indiferença. Ele faz menção ao nome de Gödel e extrai de algumas observações aparentemente modestas um apoio para sua própria teoria. Sendo que algum rebuscamento aguarda o leitor que se propõe compreender essa suposta corroboração que Gödel presta a psicanálise, introduzir o estudioso de Lacan no uso que ele faz dos teoremas de incompletude é o objetivo do presente trabalho. Para tanto, eleger-se-á um texto em particular, A ciência e a verdade, no qual o psicanalista esboça seu raciocínio de que a relação entre a psicanálise e a ciência é possível e benéfica. Cabendo aqui o espaço para localizar Gödel, deve-se questionar como apreender uma tal ideia sem incorrer na extrapolação e no abuso do saber matemático, quase corriqueiros nesse caso. Urge, para tanto, a produção de uma leitura que não sem dificuldade se equilibra entre áreas heterogêneas. Assim, esse trabalho pretende apresentar ao leitor o raciocínio subjacente aos teoremas de Gödel, familiarizá-lo quanto às pretensões matemáticas de Lacan, e indicar como se procede o uso dessa matemática implícita no texto A ciência e a verdade.

O objetivo dessa tese é estudar a relação entre lógos e noûs no diálogo Fedro de Platão. Consideramos que a tensão entre essas duas noções serve de fio condutor para organizar uma série de questões levantadas ao longo do diálogo. Em particular, consideramos que um dos objetivos de platão ao escrever o Fedro é retirar a discussão do lógos do contexto especializado da retórica e inserí-lo em uma discussão mais ampla a partir de uma discussão ontológica. Nesse sentido, consideramos que Platão está simultaneamente dialogando com a obra de dois oradores importantes: Górgias e Isócrates. Platão segue o primeiro em estabelecer uma relação entre lógos e éros,mas o abandona ao mostrar que erós, enquanto uma dynamis capaz de mover a alma humana, não serve necessariamente para provocar o engano,mas pode levar à alma em direção ao seu melhor. Em seguida, argumentos que essa direção desejável para alma seria justamente a noção de noûs enquanto ato de percepção do inteligível. Dito isso, passamos a discutir os princípios ontológicos expostos no diálogo, mostrando que o segundo dicurso de Sócrates mostra haver uma relação de semelhança entre o sensínvel e o inteligível.Essa relação leva platão a apresentar uma nova interpretação de eikós, compreendido agora como uma ponte entre a dóxa e a alethéia,o que consideramos ser um ataque direto à doutrina de Isócrates de que a dóxa seria suficiente para a persuasã. Nesse sentido, Platão abrevia o abismo entre dóxa e alethéia, mas mantém a prioridade ontológica do noús, afirmando que é por meio da epistéme que podemos conhecer o que é semelhante a verdade. Nesse sentido, a dialética surge como a téchne filosófica por excelência,na medida em que é descrita como capacidade em utilizar o lógos em busca da experiência de noús.Por fim, afirmamos ainda que, seguindo essa linha de raciocínio, Platão propôe o desenvolvimento de uma nova retórica que, para ser uma autêntica téchne, deveria se converter em uma disciplina filosófica, cujos fundamentos seriam descobertos por meio da dialética.

O diálogo estabelecido entre a filosofia Oriental e o pensamento Ocidental nos permite pensar os problemas inerentes ao nosso tempo a partir de ponto de vistas diversos. Nishitani Keiji, representante da Escola de Kyoto, percebe a contemporaneidade, o tempo da vigência da técnica, nas palavras de Heidegger, como derivação e consequência imediata da perspectiva introduzida na era moderna a partir do cogito cartesiano a qual cria uma barreira que separa homem e mundo. O pensamento científico que domina a nossa Era nasceu de uma construção de pensamento que enobrece a razão humana em detrimento das demais coisas do mundo, determinando que o conhecimento somente deve ser produzido a partir do próprio homem e seu conjunto de competências racionais. No entanto, nos alerta Nishitani, este ponto de vista derivado do pensamento moderno que impõe uma subjetividade do tipo egocêntrica além de não apreender as coisas em sua verdade, também não alcança o verdadeiro eu do homem. Na tentativa de suplantar os abusos gerados na modernidade e que reverberam em nosso modo de ser até hoje, nosso pensador, irá propor o ponto de vista da vacuidade (śūnyatā) como um caminho de trans-descendência, ou seja, de superação do pensamento tradicional que supervaloriza a razão para o encontro com o rosto original do homem, o qual ao não mais impor seu poder cognitivo pode conhecer todas as coisas em sua verdade, em seu tathatā.

O trabalho pretende explorar o impacto que a obra filosófica de Thomas Kuhn teve
sobre a filosofia da ciência, em especial sobre a ideia comum de racionalidade científica. Ao
lado disso, pretende esclarecer a posição do autor no que diz respeito ao seu entendimento do
que seja racionalidade em ciência. Para alcançar esse objetivo iniciamos dando um panorama
da cena filosófico-científica da primeira metade do século vinte, a fim de evidenciar o
conceito de racionalidade comum na época de Kuhn. Num segundo momento mostramos
como as ideias desse autor contrastam com aquele conceito, o que dá vazão para uma série de
críticas de irracionalismo. Por fim, mostramos como Kuhn contorna essas acusações ao
apontar para um novo conceito de racionalidade, conceito graças ao qual podemos conciliar
sua filosofia com uma descrição do desenvolvimento racional da ciência.

Para Plotino, a filosofia não se encontra somente na linguagem discursiva, ela também se faz presente no cotidiano e o seu objetivo é elevar a alma do homem. Seguindo o pensamento do filósofo, este trabalho tem como intento dissertar sobre a estética de Plotino como a possibilidade de ascensão para o Uno. Um caminho que se deixa compreender a partir do entendimento de temas inerentes a nossa pesquisa, como: a pergunta sobre como do Uno surge o múltiplo; a relação entre alma e liberdade; a ideia de contemplação e, ainda, o discurso da ética.

O intuito dessa dissertação consiste em apresentar a questão da linguagem e do pensamento a partir da Carta Sobre o Humanismo (1946), em diálogo com Ser e Tempo (1927) e com obras posteriores de Martin Heidegger (1889-1976). Expõe-se a crítica heideggeriana à abordagem instrumental e antropológica dessas questões, apresentando-se a interpretação da linguagem e do pensamento enquanto destino e gratidão ao Ser, contextualizadas com a conquista do homem pastor resultante do afastamento do humanismo tradicional, isto é, da metafísica da subjetividade.

Michel Foucault declara, em um de seus escritos, que seu trabalho pode ser caracterizado como uma “história crítica do pensamento”, uma história do sujeito em sua relação com os jogos de verdade. Baseado nos estudos das contingências históricas que estão presentes na constituição dos conceitos, Foucault procura demonstrar o quanto o sujeito é constituído a partir de várias determinações, em relações de poder e saber. Ao mesmo tempo em que procura pensar nas determinações que forjam nossas próprias subjetividades, fazendo com que emerja de suas reflexões uma concepção de sujeito sem muitas possibilidades de escolha, coagido de certa maneira por suas contingências, Foucault também considera ser o objetivo de seu trabalho a criação de liberdade, propondo uma ética que se efetive como estética da existência, em um processo agonístico em que faríamos de nossas vidas obras de arte, vivenciando, em práticas concretas, experiências de liberdade.

Essa aparente contradição na obra foucaultiana – a concepção de sujeito como fruto de determinações, por um lado, e sua postura ética de busca de criação de liberdade, por outro – conduziu as pesquisas e elaborações do presente trabalho. Para compreender a maneira como Foucault articulou essas duas ideias foi necessário elucidar e interrelacionar a maneira como ele pensou os conceitos de sujeito, poder e liberdade. Percorrendo com o autor seu itinerário intelectual, foi possível identificar e descrever profícuas ferramentas conceituais para pensarmos sobre nossas próprias determinações e sobre as possibilidades que temos de, a partir delas, criar novas subjetividades e experiências de liberdade.

O assentimento da Verdade: eis uma fórmula que parece ter intrigado os filósofos desde a antiguidade. A possibilidade de apreensão da verdade foi defendida por alguns filósofos que foram chamados de dogmáticos,devido à sua precipitação em julgar as aparências como representações da realidade e, refutada por aqueles que preferiram continuar questionando ao invés de se comprometer com o seu pronunciamento. Estes pensadores foram denominados céticos. Entre aqueles que defenderam o assentimento da verdade, ganha destaque nesta pesquisa Santo Agostinho, que se propôs combater a doutrina cética disseminada na antiga Academia de Platão em sua obra Contra Academicos. Assim, para conduzir esta pesquisa perguntamos: Quais os principais argumentos apresentados por Santo Agostinho contra o ceticismo acadêmico? Com o intuito de responder ao problema apontado, propomos investigar a crítica de Santo Agostinho ao ceticismo, identificando e analisando as principais refutações por ele construídas. Para isso, realizamos uma pesquisa que envolveu aspectos tanto do ceticismo quanto da vida e pensamento de Santo Agostinho sobre essa doutrina.  

A presente pesquisa tem como objetivo compreender a conceituação da homossexualidade enquanto uma criação social, que provém dos discursos permeados pelos dispositivos da sexualidade. Discute o tema da homossexualidade, com foco nas obras de Michel Foucault, destacando-se sua obra A História da Sexualidade, em que o autor enfatiza a homossexualidade como uma construção social que se manifesta no decorrer do século XIX. A partir dos discursos foucaultianos, propõem-se a compreensão e a análise da criação do conceito homossexualidade, construção que se volta a uma subordinação do sujeito enquanto agente social, ou seja, a criação da homossexualidade não se remete à prática sexual entre indivíduos do mesmo sexo, e sim a um sujeito social e à posição que toma perante a sociedade. Portanto, juntamente com o nascimento do indivíduo homossexual, tem-se igualmente a construção do indivíduo como sujeito social, ou seja, a homossexualidade e o sujeito homossexual são produtos da imbricação poder-cultura. Ao se abordar essa temática, quebra-se a hegemonia que visa à caracterização “naturalizada” da sexualidade e, consequentemente, da homossexualidade, que nasce com os discursos originados em clínicas médicas e divãs psiquiátricos, nos quais se percebe a atuação do poder nos discursos que implantam as “verdades” voltadas à sexualidade. Com isso, elabora-se uma discussão que busca refutar a eugenia que compreende a sexualidade como algo natural, instituindo o homossexual como um sujeito que nasceu refém de uma genética “ruim”, um ser anormal que deverá ser tratado de sua patologia, e compreender esse indivíduo como um produto do discurso social.

Este estudo busca esclarecer e discutir a reflexão de Hannah Arendt sobre a crise na educação no mundo contemporâneo enquanto crise político-filosófica da modernidade. Trata-se de explicitar de que forma o significado da educação está atrelado às condições de instituição, compartilhamento e conservação do mundo comum e humano. Com o intuito de reconstruir as análises da autora sobre os reflexos da crise político-filosófica da modernidade na esfera pré-política da educação, esta pesquisa investiga de que modo o fim da tradição metafísica, o esfacelamento da autoridade, o obscurecimento da esfera pública e a moderna alienação do mundo promoveram uma profunda degradação das capacidades humanas de construir, conservar e compartilhar pela ação e pelo discurso um mundo que possa sobreviver e permanecer um lugar não mortal para seres que nascem e morrem.

O presente trabalho tem por meta apresentar as provas da existência de Deus apresentadas nas Meditações Metafísicas de René Descartes, evidenciando sua importância e seu papel para o projeto filosófico cartesiano. A pesquisa procurou entender como Descartes, sendo um homem de ciência, buscará em Deus o sustentáculo e a garantia de sua filosofia. Portanto, antes será necessário entender que nessa época o conhecimento vive o caos e que Descartes se propõe substituí-lo se comprometendo a construir uma ciência nova firmada em bases seguras. Assim, o texto obedece a uma ordem que parte da dúvida como elemento metodológico imprescindível na superação de um saber carregado de incertezas e opiniões e difundido como sendo certo, para, enfim, atingir à verdade nas ciências, passando pela descoberta da primeira certeza, o Cogito, eu pensante, por isso existente. Encontrada esta certeza, a do sujeito que possui em si a ideia de um Ser infinito que contem todas as perfeições e, conforme ele irá demonstrar nas provas a posteriori e a priori. E, por isso, este Ser não pode ser pensado como não existente garantindo o projeto de Descartes.

Em A gaia ciência Nietzsche irá abordar a ciência, especificamente a sua finalidade, sob uma perspectiva crítica, apontando a necessidade de um conhecimento científico mais humano e menos mecanicista, uma ciência mais próxima à arte, que ao invés de descobrir verdades, se ocupe em criar novos valores, visões e perspectivas. Ao longo da obra fica evidente a intenção do autor em não apenas criticar a ciência, mas também, conceber um novo método, uma nova ciência, uma gaya scienza, em alusão a arte dos trovadores medievais, onde vida e conhecimento sejam partes constituintes de um mesmo processo, fazendo do conhecimento um meio de vida. Uma ciência que não se enquadra nas categorias de verdadeiro ou falso, pois o seu valor é diferente do valor da verdade, seu valor maior é a máxima potencialidade da vida em todos os seus aspectos.

Esta dissertação versa sobre o mito em Plotino e tem com objetivo elaborar uma trajetória que indique a visão do discurso mítico enquanto imagem que reflete o Uno como princípio e fim nas Enéadas. Para tanto, partimos  da análise da narrativa mítica dentro do contexto filosófico tomando como ponto de partida uma releitura da crítica platônica à poesia. Como pontos centrais utilizamos duas célebres figuras mitológicas, a saber, Narciso e Ulisses. Estas, fundamentam a noção de alma plotiniana e sua tarefa de retorno à unidade originária. Dessa maneira, a partir dessas figuras míticas, isto é, percorrendo o caminho feito por elas dentro de suas respectivas narrativas, propomos uma possível relação de ascensão e queda da alma. Dividida em três partes, na primeira, tratamos de evidenciar a interpretação de Platão a respeito do mito e a posição de Plotino em relação à visão de Platão, assim como, observamos a crítica de Platão à poesia no contexto da paidéia grega e a noção do mito como imagem da estrutura henologica em Plotino. Na segunda parte, tratamos de estruturar a filosofia de Plotino, traçando um paralelo entre Henologia e Ontologia, particularmente no que se refere às três hipóstases. Na terceira parte evidenciamos o sentido do mito e sua imagem em Plotino a partir dos papeis  que desempenham as figuras míticas nas Enéadas.

Para o filósofo tcheco Karel Kosik (1926-2003), o mundo contemporâneo é o mundo da pseudoconcreticidade, lugar onde vigora um "claro-escuro de verdade e engano". Nesse mundo, a praxis, enquanto atividade transformadora da natureza e criadora do mundo humano-social, foi convertida em mera atividade abstrata, calculadora, técnica, e desvinculada do trabalho como processo criativo. Essa ruptura assinala algo ainda mais significativo - a consciência e compreensão dos indíviduos acerca dos fenômenos, processos e relações que povoam a vida cotidiana ocorrem como representação, e não como um conhecimento conceitual, solidamente alicerçado no pensamento crítico. Partindo da investigação dialético-materialista, empreendida por Kosik, acerca das condições a partir das quais são formados tanto o modo de ser dos homens nas sociedades atuais como o seu pensamento, colimamos analisar e discorrer - à luz da principal obra daquele pensador: a Dialética do concreto (1963) - sobre o que seka esse conceito de psicoconcreticidade, procurando mostrar como ele é engendrado, como são produzidos os fenômenos pseudoconcretos e, enfim, como é possível, ou mesmo se é possível, destruir a pseudoconcreticidade.

Esta dissertação de mestrado apresenta um estudo sobre a concepção de vida entendida como sem-porquê a partir das obras espirituais de Mestre Eckhart, mais precisamente, os Sermões Alemães (Deutsche Predigten), O livro da divina consolação (Das Buch der götlichen Trostung), Do homem nobre (Von dem edlen Menschen), Palestras de instrução ou conversações espirituais (Die Reden der Unterweisung) e Do desprendimento (Von Abgeschiedenheit). Seguindo o pressuposto do desprendimento, procura-se compreender e explicitar a concepção de vida sem-porquê como a irrupção que des-vela Deus e homem. Assim, descreve-se primeiramente uma reflexão do que é o desprendimento de acordo com três dimensões: ôntica, ontológica e mística. A onticidade da pobreza absoluta nos remete imediatamente a uma análise do ontológico de todo ôntico, que para Eckhart é o ser de Deus em sua deidade, inapreensível para o homem. Entretanto, a análise do ser de Deus nos leva para a vida humana novamente - a unidade entre o ontológico e o ôntico no mundo. A dimensão mística fundamenta essa unidade como totalmente sem-porquê. Mas a possibilidade de falar e pensar sobre o desprendimento se faz a partir da manifestação da vida mesma. Não existe sermão definitivo, método milagroso, caminho percorrido ou estratégia eficaz para tal fim – é na realização da vida que se é capaz de perceber o ressoar da auto-revelação divina que nos escapa. Para elucidar essa manifestação e compreender o significado de vida como sem-porquê, esta dissertação analisa quatro perspectivas dessa injunção: a arché e o telos da vida, o tempo sob o viés do nun, o verbum e o ego sum qui sum como o que justifica a vida sem-porquê e a insistência no cotidiano mundano entendida como transcendência. É difícil expressar a profundidade do pensamento eckhartiano em relação à sua concepção de vida, pois todo seu esforço é resguardar o vigor desse des-velamento do enclausuramento de uma determinação. Não obstante, é daí que ele abre um novo horizonte para o sentido de vida. Com isso, não existe rotina e determinação em Mestre Eckhart. Todo o ordinário é o espelho do extraordinário e todo clamor eckhartiano tem em vista a urgência de restabelecer a unidade do que é corriqueiro pelo viés do que é essencial: a vida nossa de cada dia como sem-porquê.

A presente dissertação analisa a moral kantiana em uma perspectiva teleológica. Trata-se de uma reconstrução da filosofia prática que parte da investigação do imperativo categórico, dos conceitos de dever, vontade, boa vontade, bem como uma abordagem sobre as formas de investigação da natureza, o que possibilitará o fundamento para enveredarmos no argumento teleológico, investigando os seres organizados, o sistema harmônico, a relação deste com o fim último e o mais relevante, sempre flexionando a analise desses conceitos a ideia de finalidade. Posteriormente estabeleceremos uma argumentação sobre o fim terminal e a implicação deste conceito para pensar a própria ideia de sistema em Kant e sua relação ou suporte para a teoria moral. Em essência este trabalho aborda a moral do ponto de vista deontológico, delineando a insuficiência deste campo para a fundação da arquitetônica moral, o que possibilitará o arremete ou indispensabilidade do argumento teleológico como fundamental para teoria moral Kantiana.

O trabalho, aqui desenvolvido, tem por objetivo apresentar o objeto de estudo de Michel Foucault em seus últimos anos de ensino no Collège de France, a saber, o cuidado de si. Apresentamos o cuidado de si em seu nascer, em sua origem, a partir do personagem Sócrates e seu desenvolvimento até o início da era cristã. Com um olhar atento, apresentamos com Foucault um trabalho de retorno e resgate do cuidado de si às discussões pessoais e acadêmicas; propomos, a partir do cuidado de si, ao sujeito contemporâneo uma problematização de sua vida para que desta problematização ele crie para si mesmo modos de vida que sejam coerência, conhecimento e cuidado com o que ele tem de mais particular, seu si mesmo. Passando pelas fontes que serviram de fonte de estudo para Foucault esboçar o nascimento do cuidado de si, vamos desenhando a forma com a qual Foucault tratou os documentos que falam do cuidado de si. Apresentamos Sócrates como aquele que por excelência faz com que os outros dêem à luz a formas de conhecimento e cuidado próprios ou, em outras palavras, apresentamos o cuidado de si socrático-foucaultiano como um constante inquietar o outro a prestar atenção aos modos como ele conduz sua vida, cria para si modos de ser e, consequentemente, cria éticas de existência. Apresentamos, enfim, o cuidado de si como causa de contínua imanência de modos de subjetivação do sujeito que se configuram em um não aceitar uma essência determinada, mas uma “forma” continuamente atualizada. O cuidado de si conduz a uma relação única e formadora de modos de subjetivação do sujeito; ele cria, na dinâmica da temporalidade, formas éticas de viver que se sustentam por uma coerência interna do sujeito com ele mesmo; ele não admite estaticidade na formação do sujeito, deseja sempre uma obra de si mais bela; ele não é isolamento, necessita e se faz com o outro. O cuidado de si é o princípio e o telos das batalhas e conquistas do sujeito dentro de sua temporalidade e existência.

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O diálogo pensante entre a filosofia de Heidegger e a poesia de Hölderlin e Rilke deve ser travado nos domínios da linguagem. A dificuldade em estabelecer esse diálogo vem do próprio homem, incapaz de pensar fora do arcabouço da ciência e da técnica moderna. A linguagem poética foi esquecida ou ignorada, tornando-se obsoleta diante das facilidades e recursos da técnica. Heidegger busca as essências para que a poesia possa ser compreendida em sua plenitude pelo homem. Técnica, poesia e existência devem ser pronunciadas e investigadas para que o ser se apresente novamente. Para Heidegger, o homem vive em um período de incertezas por se encontrar no entardecer de uma era. A incerteza gera a penúria e a noite do mundo representa a ausência de Deus e das verdades originárias. Apenas com a compreensão fundamental da poesia, o homem de hoje pode ser projetar ao futuro não mais como produto da técnica, mas com a liberdade para escolher. A mensagem da poesia de Hölderlin e Rilke, segundo a interpretação de Heidegger, transmite um alerta ao homem contemporâneo acerca do perigo vigente na relação que ele mantém com a natureza. O objetivo do seguinte trabalho é construir esse diálogo pensante, sem desfigurar a poesia, mas indo de encontro à sua essência, para de lá retirar seu verdadeiro valor existencial.

A questão fundamental desenvolvida nesta pesquisa consiste em pensar os possíveis sentidos da biopolítica no pensamento de Michel Foucault. No primeiro capítulo desse estudo procura-se analisar a racionalidade do biopoder. Trata-se de apresentar a racionalidade do poder funcionando como uma maquinaria social na fabricação da subjetividade dos indivíduos, a biopolítica como produtora de corpos e da subjetividade. O tema da biopolítica aparece como inspiração da metáfora nietzscheana da guerra. A idéia de que a história é a guerra pelo domínio dos corpos. No segundo capítulo, a (bio)política será pensada como políticas de resistências, lutas críticas, como uma postura de revolta do sujeito diante de sua condição de assujeitado. O biopolítico, aqui, é pensado como uma ferramenta conceitual para a leitura do pensamento/obra de Foucault. Uma resistência que pode ser pensada como uma biopolítica, como uma “indocilidade refletida”. No terceiro capítulo, procurar-se-á mostrar como no Foucault que discute o poder já estava presente a ética do cuidado de si. Se o sujeito é produto, é capturado pelo discurso do biopoder que fabrica sua subjetividade, o cuidado de si, é a hora de pensar os conteúdos interiores. O cuidado de si é algo que se oferece como resistência, como uma possibilidade de pensar que esses conteúdos são construídos historicamente, e que portanto, é possível refundar-se, o cuidado de si é uma política de combate a esses conteúdos sedimentados que promove a colonização dos sujeitos. É possível passar de governado a governante de si, embora essa busca de liberdade seja sempre inacabada, seja sempre uma tensão, uma vontade de liberdade que pode se realizar não como um estado, mas pelo menos mínima e provisoriamente em formas outras de existência, e modos outros de se relacionar, outras maneiras de sociabilidade, de amizade, de sexualidade.

Este trabalho afirma uma mútua implicação entre metafísica e moralidade na filosofia de Schopenhauer e busca explicitar as diversas nuanças na qual se dá essa relação. Cada capítulo apresenta uma perspectiva na qual a relação entre metafísica e moralidade pode ser abordada. Desse modo, através da exposição de alguns aspectos importantes da teoria da representação de Schopenhauer, tentamos, no primeiro capítulo, explicitar a relação entre seu idealismo e sua concepção de moralidade; no segundo capítulo, o determinismo presente tanto na natureza quanto nas ações morais estabelece a relação entre moralidade e metafísica através da própria noção de metafísica da natureza; no terceiro capítulo, a relação entre metafísica e moralidade se dá através da noção de liberdade como negação do determinismo anterior, liberdade essa possível ao gênio, ao santo e ao asceta. Todas essas perspectivas, entretanto, pressupõem a distinção entre fenômeno e coisa-em-si, figurando tal distinção como indispensável na construção dessa metafísica que busca resguardar a significação moral do mundo ao mesmo tempo em que nega a existência de Deus.

Esta pesquisa põe em foco as relações entre a obra Retórica, de Aristóteles, e as concepções acerca de ética e de sabedoria prática desse mesmo autor. Procura mostrar que Aristóteles produziu a Retórica a fim de nortear a construção oratória e a orientação das paixões do homem grego, confirgurando-a como referencial de práticas voltadas para a ordenação social da pólis. Em outras palavras, a Retórica aristotélica, concebida pelo citado filósofo como sendo o estudo do que é persuasivo em cada discurso, não é composta com o significado de persuasão a qualquer custo, pois, noutro sentido, é idealizada por Aristóteles como saber útil ao aprimoramento da eupraxia (o bem agir em conformidade com o justo e o verdadeiro).

A presente investigação tem em vista que a obra Retórica foi elaborada pelo Estagirita numa época de fortes transformações e agitações sociais na antiga Grécia: o ceticismo se expandia, com cada indivíduo querendo viver para os seus próprios negócios e, principalmente em Atenas, uma cidade que servira como referência intelectual e política, havia uma carência do espírito coletivo. Nesse tumultuado ambiente social, Aristóteles, contando com uma cultura de gregos ansiosos por opiniões confiáveis e socialmente partilháveis no campo da verossimilhança, buscou, com a obra que é núcleo desta investigação, contribuir para o desenvolvimento da ética e da ciência política; para os encaminhamentos judiciais e a organização das inter-relações sociais em ambientes variados, inclusive tentando proporcionar o conhecimento sobre as paixões humanas e o equilíbrio emocional dos cidadãos atuantes em encontros deliberativos.

Se em todo escrito existe um objetivo, o que esse se propõe é pensar como a figura do filósofo aparece na série Considerações Intempestivas, lançada em quatro volumes entre os anos de 1873 e 1876. Nesses escritos de Nietzsche, no que pese as diferentes temáticas abordadas, ele esboça um tipo de homem propriamente filosófico, assim como apresenta em detalhes o que pensa sobre a filosofia e seu papel relativamente à época, articulando essas idéias de modo intrínseco com uma noção renovada sobre a cultura, que desempenha um papel extremamente importante no conjunto de sua obra. A partir disso, proponho pensar com Nietzsche, mas para além de seu horizonte histórico, como uma filosofia propriamente intempestiva se relaciona com a história. Dizendo de outra maneira, a partir dos caminhos trilhados por Nietzsche nas obras mencionadas, quero trazer para o presente, ensinamentos assimilados ao pensamento vivo, com o cuidado de colocar no primeiro plano o que cabe ao filósofo, considerado como médico da cultura, relativamente à época e à civilização, ou seja, desejo pensar a tarefa do filósofo nos tempos de caos como o que nos toca viver, pensando a um só tempo, como a época recebe a filosofia, e conseqüentemente, a maneira como a filosofia se relaciona com a época.

Para formular uma discussão plena sobre os elementos que regem uma teorização do niilismo, acentuamos a conceitualização dos temas prementes a filosofia de Nietzsche, para assim firmarmos um caminho seguro no tocante a sua afirmação, e não somente isso, no intuito de identificarmos a sua importância dentro de uma postura metafísica. No processo de escavação e análise dos seus elementos, encontra-se uma profunda cisão com o conjunto de doutrinas que permeiam a modernidade, contudo é importante estabelecer sobre que bases fundam-se esta compreensão a que se chega acerca do niilismo. Como ponto de investigação do primeiro capítulo considera-se o relativo ambiente histórico e filosófico em que parte o niilismo, baseado na leitura apontada por Franco Volpi, seguindo a análise e crítica do filósofo Friedrich Nietzsche, como elemento principal para uma caracterização do niilismo como questão filosófica a partir de conceitos fundamentais que permeiam a sua leitura: decadência, morte de Deus, desvalorização de valores, transvalorização de valores, vontade de poder e eterno retorno, são alguns dos conceitos mais freqüentes para uma caracterização do niilismo e servem de arcabouço para apontar uma crítica à metafísica. No segundo capítulo é feita uma análise sobre as idéias surgidas a partir da leitura tomada em Nietzsche que são desenvolvidas entre o filósofo Martin Heidegger e Ernst Jünger. Um diálogo que circunscreve o niilismo e os seus desdobramentos para a Era da Técnica para pensar a sua superação ou ultrapassagem.

Construída nos alicerces da metafísica, a presente dissertação trata da filosofia moral kantiana. Mas o itinerário das especulações que regem a elaboração dessa (re)leitura, dos pensamentos daquele filósofo, é uma tentativa de flexibilizar o rigor formal, desde sempre associado aos horizontes da ética kantiana. Será da compreensão do que vem a ser esse formalismo, em sua arquitetura da moralidade, que poderemos caminhar ao encontro de um Kant teleológico; e, esse é o elemento fundamental para entender alguns aspectos significativos naquele sistema ético, os quais passam necessariamente pela aproximação que tentamos demonstrar entre razão e sensibilidade, bem como entre natureza e liberdade. Nesse diapasão, temos que a jornada ao encontro da autonomia, enquanto alicerce da liberdade e da moralidade, convoca o auxilio da educação nos padrões kantianos, do que se pode vislumbrar uma trajetória de aperfeiçoamento do homem, enquanto indivíduo e, muito mais significativamente, enquanto espécie. Esse movimento evolutivo, que tende a revelar o destino da humanidade, está engendrado na relação entre necessidade e finalidade, sendo a condição de possibilidade para a estruturação de um projeto para a humanidade. Vale salientar que é um projeto racional, educacional e moral a ser desenvolvido no decurso da história. Daí, a somatória de todos esses elementos proporciona o desenvolvimento das disposições naturais do homem – enquanto ser que busca se auto-conhecer –, tornando-se, assim, digno de ser qualificado como humano. Por fim, o estudo visa compreender a necessidade de inclusão do homem na natureza, o que se dá através da aquisição de consciência dos indivíduos.

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é esclarecer os conceitos centrais envolvidos no

estudo da formalização das sentenças condicionais. Mais especificamente,

empreendemos uma análise comparativa de duas das principais e mais tradicionais

propostas de formalização dos condicionais (Lewis (1973c) e Adams (1975)), propostas

responsáveis pela inauguração de vertentes de análise que ainda se fazem presentes no

debate contemporâneo sobre o tema. Visamos, fundamentalmente, o esclarecimento das

principais assunções presentes nessas propostas. Com base em certas técnicas de

desambiguação presentes em Bennett (2003) e em Lycan (2005), buscamos explicitar

como essas assunções articulam-se, efetivamente, aos objetivos almejados pelas

abordagens inaugurais. Os resultados que se seguem mostram que existe um

pressuposto, não explicitamente declarado, tácito, a definição do objeto de estudo dessas

teorias, isto é, a definição de

claramente declarada, a definição do objeto de estudo desempenha um papel

fundamental na própria inteligibilidade do debate.

Platão, em seu diálogo Fédon, desenvolve uma investigação acerca do problema
da relação entre opostos. A morte histórica de Sócrates (57 a - 60 a / 116
a - 118), o palios logos (60 b - 70 c), a dupla geração entre opostos (70
c - 72 e), o argumeno da reminiscência (77 d - 80 e), a dupla exclusão entre
opostos (95 e - 107 a) e o mito (107 b - 116 a), são instrumentos usados na
busca da definição da morte para o filósofo. O cerne desta pesquisa, a
saber, o argumento dos opostos em seus dois modos de articulação: dupla
geração (70 c - 72 e) e dupla exclusão entre opostos (103 a), quando unido
ao argumento da reminiscência (72 c - d) se torna decisivo no discernimento
tanto da verdadeira causa da geração quanto na compreensão do que ocorre no
processo de exclusão entre os opostos(70 c - 72 e).